nach oben

Erschienen in:

2016 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

18. Fetale Wachstumsrestriktion (FGR)

verfasst von : Henning Schneider, Karl-Theo M. Schneider, Silvia M. Lobmaier

Erschienen in: Die Geburtshilfe

Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg

Einloggen, um Zugang zu erhalten

Zusammenfassung

Feten mit restringiertem Wachstumspotenzial können dieses nicht vollständig ausschöpfen. Bei dieser Diagnosestellung spielt die Dopplersonographie, v. a. bei früher („early-onset“) fetaler Wachstumsrestriktion bis zu 34 SSW, eine wichtige Rolle. Mit fortgeschrittenem Schwangerschaftsalter zeigen die meisten SGA-Feten („small for gestational age“) keine Auffälligkeiten im Umbilikalarteriendoppler. Neuere Studien zeigen, dass auch diese „late-onset“ SGA-Feten (>34 SSW) signifikant häufiger Geburtsprobleme, eine suboptimale neurologische Entwicklung und höhere kardiovaskuläre Risiken haben. Im Gegensatz dazu steht die frühe „early-onset“ FGR, die mit den typischen Dopplerveränderungen einhergeht, mit hoher Morbidität und Mortalität vergesellschaftet ist und v. a. vom Schwangerschaftsalter bei Diagnose abhängt.

Die große Herausforderung der frühen FGR ist die Optimierung des Entbindungszeitpunktes, die Schwierigkeit der späten FGR ist bereits die diagnostische Erfassung.

Vorheriges Kapitel Der Fetus als Patient - Chirurgische und medikamentöse Therapie

Nächstes Kapitel Fetale Programmierung

Abuzzahab MJ, Schneider A, Goddard A et al (2003) IGF-I receptor mutations resulting in intrauterine and postnatal growth retardation. N Engl J Med 349:2211–2222PubMedCrossRef

Ahmed A, Dunk C, Ahmad S, Khaliq A (2000) Regulation of placental vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placental growth factor (PlGF) and soluble Flt-1 by oxycen- a rewiev. Placenta 21(Suppl A):S16–S24PubMedCrossRef

Akolekar R, Syngelaki A, Sarquis R, Zvanca M, Nicolaides KH (2011) Prediction of early, intermediate and late pre-eclampsia from maternal factors, biophysical and biochemical markers at 11–13 weeks. Prenat Diagn 31:66–74PubMedCrossRef

Akram DS, Arif F (2005) Ponderal index of low birth weight babies – a hospital bases study. J Pak Med Assoc 55:229–231PubMed

Ananth CV, Wilcox AJ (2001) Placental abruption and perinatal mortality in the United States. Am J Epidemiol 153:332–337PubMedCrossRef

Andraweera PH, Dekker GA, Roberts CT (2012) The vascular endothelial growth factor family in adverse pregnancy outcomes. Hum Reprod Update 18:436–457PubMedCrossRef

Angiolini E, Fowden A, Coan P, Sandovici I, Smith P, Dean W, Burton G, Tycko B, Reik W, Sibley C, Constancia M (2006) Regulation of placental efficiency for nutrient transport by imprinted genes. Placenta 27. Suppl A Trophoblast Research 20:98–102

Arduini D, Rizzo G (1990) Normal values of pulsatility index from fetal vessels: a cross-sectional study on 1556 healthy fetuses. J Perinat Med 18:165–172PubMedCrossRef

Badawi N, Kurinczuk JJ, Keogh JM, Alessandri LM, O'Sullivan F, Burton PR, Pemberton PJ, Stanley FJ (1998) Antepartum risk factors for newborn encephalopathy: the Western Australian case-control study. BMJ 317(7172):1549–1553PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Barker DJD (1990) Fetal and placental size and risk of hypertension in adult life. Br Med J 301:259–262CrossRef

Barker DJ, Winter PD, Osmond C, Margetts B, Simmonds SJ (1989) Weight in infancy and death from ischaemic heart disease. Lancet 334:577–580CrossRef

Baschat AA (2004) Fetal responses to placental insufficiency: an update. BJOG 111:1031–1041PubMedCrossRef

Baschat AA (2011) Neurodevelopment following fetal growth restriction and its relationship with antepartum parameters of placental dysfunction. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 37(5):501–514PubMedCrossRef

Baschat AA, Gembruch U (2003) The cerebroplacental Doppler ratio revisited. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 21:124–127PubMedCrossRef

Baschat AA, Gembruch U, Harman CR (2001) The sequence of changes in Doppler and biophysical parameters as severe fetal growth restriction worsens. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 18:571–577PubMedCrossRef

Baschat AA, Cosmi E, Bilardo CM, Wolf H, Berg C, Rigano S, Germer U, Moyano D, Turan S, Hartung J, Bhide A, Müller T, Bower S, Nicolaides KH, Thilaganathan B, Gembruch U, Ferrazzi E, Hecher K, Galan HL, Harman CR (2007) Predictors of neonatal outcome in early-onset placental dysfunction. Obstet Gynecol 109:253–261PubMedCrossRef

Baschat AA, Viscardi RM, Hussey-Gardner B, Hashmi N, Harman C (2009) Infant neurodevelopment following fetal growth restriction: relationship with antepartum surveillance parameters. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 33(1):44–50PubMedCrossRef

Baumann MU, Bersinger NA, Mohaupt MG et al (2008) First-trimester serum levels of soluble endoglin and soluble fms-like tyrosin kinase-1 as first-trimester markers for late onset preeclampsia. Am Obstet Gynecol 199:266.e1–6CrossRef

Berghella V (2007) Prevention of recurrent fetal growth restriction. Obstet Gynecol 110:904PubMedCrossRef

Bilardo CM, Wolf H, Stigter RH, Ville Y, Baez E, Visser GH, Hecher K (2004) Relationship between monitoring parameters and perinatal outcome in severe, early intrauterine growth restriction. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 23:119–125PubMedCrossRef

Black RS, Campbell S (1997) Cardiotocography versus Doppler. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 9:148–151PubMedCrossRef

Boers KE, Vijgen SM, Bijlenga D, van der Post JA, Bekedam DJ, Kwee A, van der Salm PC, van Pampus MG, Spaanderman ME, de Boer K, Duvekot JJ, Bremer HA, Hasaart TH, Delemarre FM, Bloemenkamp KW, van Meir CA, Willekes C, Wijnen EJ, Rijken M, le Cessie S, Roumen FJ, Thornton JG, van Lith JM, Mol BW, Scherjon SA, DIGITAT Study Group (2010) Induction versus expectant monitoring for intrauterine growth restriction at term: randomised equivalence trial (DIGITAT). BMJ 341:c7087PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Boers KE, van Wyk L, van der Post JA, Kwee A, van Pampus MG, Spaanderdam ME, Duvekot JJ, Bremer HA, Delemarre FM, Bloemenkamp KW, de Groot CJ, Willekes C, Rijken M, Roumen FJ, Thornton JG, van Lith JM, Mol BW, le Cessie S, Scherjon SA, DIGITAT Study Group (2012) Neonatal morbidity after induction vs expectant monitoring in intrauterine growth restriction at term: a subanalysis of the DIGITAT RCT. Am J Obstet Gynecol 206:344.e1–7CrossRef

Brooks AA, Johnson MR, Steer PJ, Pawson ME, Abdalla HI (1995) Birth weight: nature or nurture? Early Hum Dev 42:29–35PubMedCrossRef

Cetin I, Ronzoni S, Marconi AM, Perugino G, Corbetta C, Battaglia FC, Pardi G (1996) Maternal concentrations and fetal-maternal concentration differences of plasma amino acids in normal and intrauterine growth retarded (IUGR) pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 174:1575–1583PubMedCrossRef

Chang TC, Boys RJ, Spencer JA (1992) Prediction of the small for gestational age infant: which ultrasonic measurement is best? Obstet Gynecol 80:1030–1038PubMed

Clapp JF (1996) The clinical significance of asymmetric intrauterine growth retardation. Ped Ann 25:223–227CrossRef

Clapp JF, Rizk KH, Appleby-Wineberg SK, Krass JR (1995) Second-trimester placental volumes predict birthweight at term. J Soc Gynecol Investig 2:19–22PubMedCrossRef

Clark SL (1992) Patterns of intrauterine growth retardation: case examples. Clin Obstet Gynecol 35:194–201PubMedCrossRef

Comas M, Crispi F, Cruz-Martinez R, Figueras F, Gratacos E (2011) Tissue Doppler echocardiographic markers of cardiac dysfunction in small-for-gestational age fetuses. Am J Obstet Gynecol 205(57):e1–e6PubMed

Coolman M, Timmermans S, de Groot C, Russcher H, Lindemans J, Hofman A (2012) Angiogenic and fibrinolytic factors in blood during the first half of pregnancy and adverse pregnancy outcome. Obstet Gynecol 119:1190–1200PubMedCrossRef

Crispi F, Bijnens B, Figueras F, Bartrons J, Eixarch E, Le Noble F, Ahmed A, Gratacós E (2010) Fetal growth restriction results in remodeled and less efficient hearts in children. Circulation 121:2427–2436PubMedCrossRef

Crispi F, Francesc F, Cruz-Lemini M, Bartrons J, Bijnens B, Gratacos E (2012) Cardiovascular programming in children born small for gestational age and relationship with prenatal signs of severitiy. AJOG 207:121.e1–9CrossRef

Cruz-Martinez R, Figueras F, Oros D, Padilla N, Meler E, Hernandez-Andrade E, Gratacos E (2009) Cerebral blood perfusion and neurobehavioral performance in full-term small-for-gestational-age fetuses. Am J Obstet Gynecol 201:474.e1–7CrossRef

Cruz-Martínez R, Figueras F, Hernandez-Andrade E, Oros D, Gratacos E (2011) Fetal brain Doppler to predict cesarean delivery for nonreassuring fetal status in term small-for-gestational-age fetuses. Obstet Gynecol 117:618–626PubMedCrossRef

Dawes GS, Visser GHA, Goodman JDS, Redman CWG (1981) Numerical analysis of the human fetal heart rate: the quality of ultrasound recorts. Am J Obstet Gynecol 141:43–52PubMedCrossRef

Dawes GS, Houghton CRS, Redman CWG (1982) Baseline in human fetal heart-rate records. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 89:270–275PubMedCrossRef

Dawes GS, Redman CWG, Smith JH (1985) Improvements in the registration and analysis of fetal heart rate records at the bedside. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 92:317–325PubMedCrossRef

Dawes GS, Moulden M, Redman CWG (1992) Short term fetal heart rate variation, decelerations, and umbilical flow velocitiy waveforms before labor. Obstet Gynecol 80:673–678PubMed

De Reu PA, Smits LJ, Oosterbaan HP, Nijhuis JG (2008) Value of a single early third trimester fetal biometry for the prediction of birth weight deviations in a low risk population. J Perinat Med 36(4):324–329PubMed

Droste S (1992) Fetal growth in aneuploid conditions. Clin Obstet Gynecol 35(1):119–125PubMedCrossRef

Eixarch E, Meler E, Iraola A, Illa M, Crispi F, Hernandez-Andrade E, Gratacos E, Figueras F (2008) Neurodevelopmental outcome in 2-year-old infants who were small-for-gestational age term fetuses with cerebral blood flow redistribution. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 32:894–899PubMedCrossRef

Ewigman BG, Frigoletto FD, LeFevre ML, Bain RP, McNellis D, RADIUS Study Group (1993) Effect of prenatal ultrasound screening on perinatal outcome. N Engl J Med 329(12):821–827PubMedCrossRef

Ferrazzi E, Bozzo M, Rigano S, Bellotti M, Morabito A, Pardi G, Battaglia FC, Galan HL (2002) Temporal sequence of abnormal Doppler changes in the peripheral and central circulatory systems of the severely growth-restricted fetus. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 19(2):140–146PubMedCrossRef

Figueras F, Oros D, Cruz-Martinez R, Padilla N, Hernandez-Andrade E, Botet F, Costas-Moragas C, Gratacos E (2009) Neurobehaviour in term, small-for-gestational age infants with normal placental function. Pediatrics 124:e934–e941PubMedCrossRef

Figueras F, Cruz-Martinez R, Sanz-Cortes M, Arranz A, Illa M, Botet F, Costas-Moragas C, Gratacos E (2011) Neurobehavioral outcomes in preterm, growth-restricted infants with and without prenatal advanced signs of brain-sparing. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 38(3):288–294PubMedCrossRef

Flenady V, Koopmans L, Middleton P, Frøen JF, Smith GC, Gibbons K, Coory M, Gordon A, Ellwood D, McIntyre HD, Fretts R, Ezzati M (2011) Major risk factors for stillbirth in high-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 377:1331–1340PubMedCrossRef

Frøen JF, Gardosi JO, Thurmann A, Francis A, Stray-Pedersen B (2004) Restricted fetal growth in sudden intrauterine unexplained death. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 83:801–807PubMedCrossRef

Gagnon A, Wilson RD, Audibert F, Allen VM, Blight C, Brock JA, Desilets VA, Johnson JA, Langlois S, Summers A, Wyatt P (2008) Obstetrical complications associated with abnormal maternal serum markers analytes. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 30:918–949PubMedCrossRef

Gardosi J, Chang A, Kalyan B, Sahota D, Symonds EM (1992) Customised antenatal growth charts. Lancet 339:283–287PubMedCrossRef

Glazier JD, Cetin I, Perugino G, Ronzoni S, Grey AM, Mahendran D, Marconi AM, Pardi G, Sibley C (1997) Association between the activity of the system A amino acid transporter in the microvillous plasma membrane of the human placenta and severity of fetal compromise in intrauterine growth restriction. Pediatr Res 42:514–519PubMedCrossRef

Gluckman PD, Liggins GC (1984) The regulation of fetal growth. In: Beard RW, Nathanielsz PW (Hrsg) Fetal physiology and medicine, Bd 2. Marcel Dekker, New York, S 511–558CrossRef

Gómez O, Figueras F, Fernández S, Bennasar M, Martínez JM, Puerto B, Gratacós E (2008) Reference ranges for uterine artery mean pulsatility index at 11–41 weeks of gestation. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 32:128–132PubMedCrossRef

Graatsma EM, Mulder EJ, Vasak B, Lobmaier SM, Pildner von Steinburg S, Schneider KT, Schmidt G, Visser GH (2012) Average acceleration and deceleration capacity of fetal heart rate in normal pregnancy and in pregnancies complicated by fetal growth restriction. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 25:2517–2522PubMedCrossRef

Gramellini D, Folli MC, Raboni S, Vadora E, Merialdi A (1992) Cerebral-umbilical Doppler ratio as a predictor of adverse perinatal outcome. Obstet Gynecol 79:416–420PubMedCrossRef

Gray PH, Jones P, O’Callaghan MJ (2001) Maternal antecedents for cerebral palsy in extremely preterm babies: a case-control study. Dev Med Child Neurol 43:580–585PubMedCrossRef

Haig D (2004) Genomic imprinting and kinship: how good is the evidence? Annu Rev Genet 38:553–585PubMedCrossRef

Harrington K, Goldfrad C, Carpenter RG, Campbell S (1997) Transvaginal uterine and umbilical artery Doppler examination of 12–16 weeks and the subsequent development of pre-eclampsia and intrauterine growth retardation. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 9:94–100PubMedCrossRef

Hawkins P, Steyn C, Ozaki T, Saito T, Noakes D, Hanson MA (2000) Effect of maternal undernutrition in early gestation on ovine fetalblood pressure and cardiovascular reflexes. Am J Physiol 279:R340–R348

Hecher K, Hackelöer BJ (1997) Cardiotocogram campared to Doppler investigation of the fetal circulation in the premature growth-retarded fetus: longitudinal observations. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 9:152–161PubMedCrossRef

Hecher K, Bilardo CM, Stigter RH, Ville Y, Hackelöer BJ, Kok HJ, Senat MV, Visser GH (2001) Monitoring of fetuses with intrauterine growth restriction: a longitudinal study. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 18(6):564–570PubMedCrossRef

Heinonen S, Taipale P, Saarikoski S (2001) Weights of placentae of small-for-gestational age infants revisited. Placenta 22:399PubMedCrossRef

Hendrix N, Berghella V (2008) Non-placental causes of intruterine growth restriction. Semin Perinatol 32:161PubMedCrossRef

Henson G, Dawes GS, Redman CWG (1984) Characterization of reduced heart rate variation in growth-retarded fetuses. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 91:751–755PubMedCrossRef

Hitschold TP (1998) Doppler flow velocity waveforms of the umbilical arteries correlates with intervillous blood volume. Am J Obstet Gynecol 179:540–543PubMedCrossRef

Huhn EA, Lobmaier S, Fischer T, Schneider R, Bauer A, Schneider KT, Schmidt G (2011) New computerized fetal heart rate analysis for surveillance of intrauterine growth restriction. Prenat Diagn 31:509–514PubMedCrossRef

Huppertz B, Schneider H (2012) Implantatiosstörungen, Präeklampsie und intrauterine Wachstumsrestriktion. Gynakologe 45:514–519CrossRef

Illa M, Coloma JL, Eixarch E, Meler E, Iraola A, Gardosi J, Gratacós E, Figueras F (2009) Growth deficit in term small-for-gestational fetuses with normal umbilical artery Doppler is associated with adverse outcome. J Perinat Med 37:48–52PubMedCrossRef

Jacobsson B, Ahlin K, Francis A, Hagberg G, Hagberg H, Gardosi J (2008) Cerebral palsy and restricted growth status at birth: population-based case-control study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 115:1250–1255CrossRef

Jansson T, Powell TL (2007) Role of placenta in fetal programming: underlying mechanisms and potential interventional approaches. Clin Sci (London) 113(1):1–13CrossRef

Kametas NA, McAuliffe F, Krampl E et al (2004) Maternal cardiac function during pregnancy at high altitude. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 111:1051CrossRef

Kaufmann P, Scheffen I (1998) Placental development. In: Polin RA, Fox WW (Hrsg) Fetal and neonatal physiology. Saunders, Philadelphia, S 59

Khoshnood B, Bouvier-Colle MH, Leridon H, Blondel B (2008) Impact of advanced maternal age on fecundity and women's and children's health. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod 37:733–747CrossRef

Kiserud T, Kessler J, Egging C, Rasmussen S (2006) Ductus venosus shunting in growth-restricted fetuses and the effect of umbilical circulatory compromise. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 28:143–149PubMedCrossRef

Kyank H, Kruse HJ, Adomßent S, Plesse R (1977) Standardwerte für Geburtsgewicht und Geburtslänge in der DDR. Zentralbl Gynakol 99:461–465PubMed

Lackman F, Capewell V, Richardson B, daSilva O, Gagnon R (2001) The risks of spontaneous preterm delivery and perinatal mortality in relation to size at birth according to fetal versus neonatal growth standards. Am J Obstet Gynecol 184:946–953PubMedCrossRef

Largo RH, von Siebenthal K, Etter K, Morales C, Bucher HU, Duc G (1997) Body proportionality in growth retarded infants. J Perinat Med 25:17–25PubMedCrossRef

Largo RH, Wälli R, Duc G, Fanconi A, Prader A (1980) Evaluation of perinatal growth. Helv Pädiatr Acta 35:419

Larsen T, Petersen S, Greisen G (1992) Detection of small-for-gestational-age fetuses by ultrasound screening in a high risk population: a randomized controlled study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 99:469–474PubMedCrossRef

Law CM (1993) Initiation of hypertension in utero and its amplification throughout life. Br Med J 306:24–27CrossRef

Lees et al (2015) 2 year neurodevelopmental and intermediate perinatal outcomes in infants with very preterm fetal growth restriction (TRUFFLE): a randomised trial. Lancet 385(9983):2162–2172.

Leonardi-Bee J, Smyth A, Britton J, Coleman T (2008) Environmental tobacco smoke and fetal health: systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 93(5):F351–F361PubMedCrossRef

Llurba E, Turan O, Kasdaglis T, Harman CR, Baschat AA (2013) Emergence of late-onset placental dysfunction: relationship to the change in uterine artery blood flow resistance between the first and third trimesters. Am J Perinatol 30:505–512PubMedCrossRef

Lobmaier SM, Huhn EA, Pildner von Steinburg S, Müller A, Schuster T, Ortiz JU, Schmidt G, Schneider KT (2012) Phase-rectified signal averaging as a new method for surveillance of growth restricted fetuses. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 25:2523–2528PubMedCrossRef

Lobmaier SM, Figueras F, Mercade I, Perello M, Peguero A, Crovetto F, Ortiz JU, Crispi F, Gratacós E (2013) Angiogenic factors versus Doppler follow up in the prediction of adverse outcome among late pregnancy small-for-gestational-age fetuses. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. doi:10.1002/uog.13246, Epub vor Druck

Lundgren EM, Cnattingius S, Jonsson B, Tuvemo T (2001) Intellectual and psychological performance in males born small for gestational age with and without catch-up growth. Pediatr Res 50:91–96PubMedCrossRef

Mandruzatto G, Antsaklis A, Botet F, Chervenak F, Figueras G, Grunebaum A, Puerto B, Skupski D, Stanojevic M (2008) Intrauterine restriction (IUGR). J Perinat Med 36:277–281CrossRef

McCowan LM, Harding JE, Roberts AB, Barker SE, Ford C, Stewart AW (2000) A pilot randomized controlled trial of two regimens of fetal surveillance for small-for-gestational-age fetuses with normal results of umbilical artery doppler velocimetry. Am J Obstet Gynecol 182:81–86PubMedCrossRef

Melchiorre K, Leslie K, Prefumo F, Bhide A, Thilaganathan B (2009) First-trimester uterine artery Doppler indices in the prediction of small-for-gestational age pregnancy and intrauterine growth restriction. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 33:5249CrossRef

Mortola JP, Frappell PB, Aguero L, Armstrong K (2000) Birth weight and altitude: a study in Peruvian communities. J Pediatr 136:324PubMedCrossRef

Mutterschafts-Richtlinien (2013). https://www.g-ba.de/downloads/62-492-883/Mu-RL_2014-04-24.pdf. Zugegriffen am 19.03.2015

Nathanielsz PW (1999) The Dutch hunger winter. In: Life in the womb: the origin of health and disease. Promethean Press, Ithaka, S 33

Neerhof MG (1995) Causes of intrauterine growth restriction. Clin Perinatol 22:375PubMed

Oros D, Figueras F, Cruz-Martinez R, Meler E, Munmany M, Gratacos E (2011) Longitudinal changes in uterine, umbilical and fetal cerebral Doppler indices in late-onset small-for-gestational age fetuses. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 37:191–195PubMedCrossRef

Owen P, Maharaj S, Khan KS, Howie PW (2001) Interval between fetal measurements in predicting growth restriction. Obstet Gynecol 97:499–504PubMed

Pardey J, Moulden M, Redman CWG (2002) A computer system for the numerical analysis of nonstress tests. Am J Obstet Gynecol 186:1095–1103PubMedCrossRef

Pardi G, Cetin I, Marconi AM, Bozetti P, Buscaglia M, Makowsky EL et al (1992) The venous drainage of the human uterus: respiratory gas studies in normal and growth retarded pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 166:699–706PubMedCrossRef

Pardi G, Cetin I, Marconi AM, Lanfranchi A, Bozzetti P, Ferrazzi E, Buscaglia M, Battaglia FC (1993) Diagnostic value of blood sampling in fetuses with growth retardation. N Engl J Med 328(10):692–696PubMedCrossRef

Parra-Saavedra M, Crovetto F, Triunfo S, Savchev S, Parra G, Sanz M, Gratacos E, Figueras F (2013) Added value of umbilical vein flow as a predictor of perinatal outcome in term small-for-gestational-age fetuses. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 42:189–195PubMedCrossRef

Pearce JM, Campbell S (1987) A comparison of symphysis-fundal height and ultrasound as screening tests for light for gestational age infants. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 94:100–104PubMedCrossRef

Platt LD (1988) Genetic factors in intrauterine growth retardation. Semin Perinatol 12(1):11–16PubMed

Poon LC, Syngelaki A, Akolekar R, Lai J, Nicolaides KH (2013) Combined screening for preeclampsia and small for gestational age at 11–13 weeks. Fetal Diagn Ther 33:16–27PubMedCrossRef

Presbitero P, Somerville J, Stone S et al (1994) Pregnancy in cyanotic congenital heart disease. Outcome of mother and fetus. Circulation 89:2673PubMedCrossRef

Reik W, Constancia M, Fowden A, Anderson N, Dean W, Ferguson-Smith A, Tycko B, Sibley C (2003) Regulation of supply and demand of maternal nutrients in mammals by imprinted genes. J Physiol 547(1):35–44PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Resnik R (2002) Intrauterine growth restriction. Obstet Gynecol 99:490–496PubMed

Ribbert LS, Snijders RJ, Nicolaides KH, Visser GH (1991) Relation of fetal blood gases and data from computer-assisted analysis of fetal heart rate patterns in small for gestation fetuses. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 98(8):820–823PubMedCrossRef

Rigano S, Bozzo M, Ferrazzi E, Bellotti M, Battaglia FC, Galan HL (2001) Reduction in umbilical vein blood flow in the growth-restricted fetus: a longitudinal study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 185(4):834–838PubMedCrossRef

Rizzo G, Arduini D, Romanini C (1992) Doppler echocardiographic assessment of fetal cardiac function. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2(6):434–445PubMedCrossRef

Roberge S, Nicolaides KH, Demers S, Villa P, Bujold E (2013) Prevention of perinatal death and adverse perinatal outcome using low-dose aspirin: a meta-analysis. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 41:491–499PubMedCrossRef

Romo A, Carceller R, Tobajas J (2009) Intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR): epidemiology and etiology. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev 6(Suppl 3):332–336PubMed

Roos S, Jansson N, Palmberg I, Säljö K, Powell TL, Jansson T (2007) Mammalian target of rapamycin in the human placenta regulates leucine transport and is down-regulated in restricted foetal growth. J Physiol 582:449–459PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRef

Savchev S, Figueras F, Cruz-Martinez R, Illa M, Botet F, Gratacos E (2012) Estimated weight centile as a predictor of perinatal outcome in small-for-gestational-age pregnancies with normal fetal and maternal Doppler indices. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 39:299–303PubMedCrossRef

Schneider H (1996) Ontogenic changes in the nutritive function of the placenta. Placenta 17:15–26PubMedCrossRef

Schneider KTM, Amberg-Wendland D, Renz S, Fürstenaus U (1991) Prospektiv randomisierte Untersuchung zum klinischen Wert der Dopplersonographie als Screeningverfahren. Gynekol Rundsch 31:139–140CrossRef

Schneider H, Naiem A, Malek A, Hänggi W (1994) Ätiologische Klassifizierung der Frühgeburt und ihre Bedeutung für die Prävention. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 54:12–19PubMedCrossRef

Schwitzgebel VM, Somm E, Klee P (2009) Modeling intrauterine growth retardation in rodents: Impact on pancreas development and glucose homeostasis. Mol Cell Endocrinol 304(1–2):78–83, 125PubMedCrossRef

Selling KE, Carstensen J, Finnstrom O, Sydsjo G (2006) Intergenerational effects of preterm birth and reduced intrauterine growth: a population based study of Swedish mother-offspring pairs. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 113:430CrossRef

Serra V, Bellver J, Moulden M, Redman CWG (2009) Computerized analysis of normal fetal heart rate pattern throughout gestation. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 34:74–79PubMedCrossRef

Severi FM, Bocchi C, Visentin A, Falco P, Cobellis L, Florio P, Zagonari S, Pilu G (2002) Uterine and fetal cerebral Doppler predict the outcome of third-trimester small-for-gestational age fetuses with normal umbilical artery Doppler. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 19:225–228PubMedCrossRef

Sheikh S, Satoskar P, Bhartiya D (2001) Expression of insulin-like growth factor-I and placental growth hormone mRNA in placentae: a comparison between normal and intraauterine growth retardation pregnancies. Mol Hum Reprod 7:287–292PubMedCrossRef

Shibata E, Rajakumar A, Powers RW, Larkin RW, Gilmour C, Bodnar LM, Crombleholme WR, Ness RB, Roberts JM, Hubel CA (2005) Soluble fms-like tyrosin kinase 1 is increased in preeclampsia but not in normotensive pregnancies with small-for-gestational-age neonates: Relationship to circulating placental growth factor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:4895–4903PubMedCrossRef

Simmons RA (2009) Developmental origins of adult disease. Pediatr Clin N Am 56:449–466CrossRef

Souka AP, Papastefanou I, Pilalis A, Michalitsi V, Kassanos D (2012) Performance of third-trimester ultrasound for prediction of small-for-gestational-age neonates and evaluation of contingency screening policies. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 39:535–542PubMedCrossRef

Souka AP, Papastefanou I, Pilalis A, Michalitsi V, Panagopoulos P, Kassanos D (2013) Performance of the ultrasound examination in the early and late third trimester for the prediction of birth weight deviations. Prenat Diagn 22:1–6CrossRef

Spencer K, Yu CK, Cowans NJ, Otigbah C, Nicolaides KH (2005) Prediction of pregnancy complications by first-trimester maternal serum PAPP-A and free beta-hCG and with second-trimester uterine artery Doppler. Prenat Diagn 25:949–953PubMedCrossRef

Spinillo A, Capuzzo E, Piazzi G, Baltaro F, Stronati M, Ometto A (1997) Significance of low birthweight for gestational age among very preterm infants. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 104:668–673PubMedCrossRef

Strauss RS (2000) Adult functional outcome of those born small-for-gestational age: twenty-six-year follow-up of the 1970 British Birth Cohort. JAMA 283:625–632PubMedCrossRef

Street P, Dawes GS, Moulden M, Redman CWG (1991) Short-term variation in abnormal antenatal fetal heart rate records. Am J Obstet Gynecol 165:515–523PubMedCrossRef

Strobino DM, Ensminger ME, Kim YJ, Nanda J (1995) Mechanisms for maternal age differences in birth weight. Am J Epidemiol 142:504PubMed

Svensson AC, Pawitan Y, Cnattingius S, Reilly M, Lichtenstein P (2006) Familial aggregation of small-for-gestational-births: the importance of fetal genetic defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol 194:475

Tazuke SI (1998) Hypoxia regulation of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 (IGFBP-1): potential mechanisms for growth regulation of the IUGR. J Soc Gynecol Invest 5:160ACrossRef

Tchirikov M, Kertschanska S, Stürenberg HJ, Schröder HJ (2002) Liver blood perfusion as a possible instrument for fetal growth regulation. Placenta 23(Suppl A):S153–S158PubMedCrossRef

Thornton JG, Hornbuckle J, Vail A, Spiegelhalter DJ, Levene M, GRIT Study Group (2004) Infant wellbeing at 2 years of age in the Growth Restriction Intervention Trial (GRIT): multicentred randomised controlled trial. Lancet 364(9433):513–520PubMedCrossRef

Torrance HL, Bloemen MC, Mulder EJ, Nikkels PG, Derks JB, de Vries LS, Visser GH (2010) Predictors of outcome at 2 years of age after early intrauterine growth restriction. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 36(2):171–177PubMedCrossRef

Trudell AS, Cahill AG, Tuuli MG, Macones GA, Odibo AO (2013) Risk of stillbirth after 37 weeks in pregnancies complicated by small-for-gestational-age fetuses. Am J Obstet Gynecol 208(5):376.e1–7CrossRef

Van Eijsden M, Smis LJ, van der Wal MF, Bonsel GJ (2008) Association between short interpregnancy intervals and term birth weigt: the role of folate depletion. Am J Clin Nutr 88:147PubMed

Vergani P, Roncaglia N, Andreotti C, Arreghini A, Teruzzi M, Pezzullo JC, Ghidini A (2002) Prognostic value of uterine artery Doppler velocimetry in growth-restricted fetuses delivered near term. Am J Obstet Gynecol 187:932–936PubMedCrossRef

Visser GHA, Dawes GS, Redman CWG (1981) Numerical analysis of the normal human antenatal fetal heart rate. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 88:792–802PubMedCrossRef

Voigt M, Schneider KTM, Jährig K (1996) Analyse des Geburtengutes des Jahrgangs 1992 der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Teil 1: Neue Perzentilmaße für die Körpergewichte Neugeborener. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 56:550–558PubMedCrossRef

Voigt M, Schneider KTM, Jährig K (1997) Analyse des Geburtengutes des Jahrgangs 1992 der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Teil 2: Mehrdimensionale Zusdammenhänge zwischen Alter, Körpergewicht und Körperhöhe der Mutter und dem Geburtsgewicht. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 57:246–255CrossRef

Voigt M, Fusch C, Olbertz D, Hartmann K, Rochow N, Renken C, Schneider KTM (2006) Analyse des Neugeborenenkollektivs der Bundesrepunlik Deutschland. 12. Mitteilung: Vorstellung engmaschiger Perzentilwerte (Kurven) für die Körpermaße Neugeborener. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 06:956–970CrossRef

Von Dadelszen P, Ornstein MP, Bull SB (2000) Fall in mean arterial pressure and fetal growth restriction in pregnancy hypertension: a metaanalysisi. Lancet 355:87CrossRef

Wadhwa PD, Gartie TJ, Porto M et al (2004) Placental corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), spontaneous preterm birth, and fetal growth restriction: a prospective investigation. Am J Obstetr Gynecol 191:1063CrossRef

Walenkampf MJ, Wit JM (2008) Single gene mutations causing SGA. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 22:433CrossRef

Walton A, Hammond Y (1938) The maternal effects on growth and conformation in Shier Horse Shetland Pony crosses. Proc R Soc London 125:311–335CrossRef

Weller U, Jorch G (1993) Aktuelle Perzentilkurven für Körpergewicht, Körperlänge und Kopfumfang von Neugenorenen ab 26 SSW. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd 141:1–5

Westwood M, Gibson JM, Sooranna SR, Ward S, Neilson JP, Bajoria R (2001) Genes or placenta as modulator of fetal growth: evidence from the insulin-like growth factor axis in twins with discordant growth. Mol Hum Reprod 7:387–395PubMedCrossRef

Wilkins-Haug L, Quade B, Morton CC (2006) Confined placental mosaicism as a risk factor among newborns with fetal growth restriction. Prenat Diagn 26:428PubMedCrossRef

Wladimiroff JW, Tonge HM, Stewart PA (1986) Doppler ultrasound assessment of cerebral blood flow in the human fetus. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 93:471–475PubMedCrossRef

Titel: Fetale Wachstumsrestriktion (FGR)
verfasst von: Henning Schneider
Karl-Theo M. Schneider
Silvia M. Lobmaier
Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Buch: Die Geburtshilfe
Print ISBN: 978-3-662-45063-5

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-662-45064-2

Copyright-Jahr: 2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45064-2_18

Springerpflege

Zusammenfassung

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu diesem Inhalt zu erhalten