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A Systematic Approach to the Legal Evaluation of Security Measures in Public Transportation

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Reforming European Data Protection Law

Part of the book series: Law, Governance and Technology Series ((ISDP,volume 20))

Abstract

This paper explores the need for a systematic approach when evaluating security measures in the context of public transportation. Subsequently, a method for the evaluation of security measures is presented. This method should be used by decision makers tasked with the acquisition and implementation of security measures. It promotes the use of fundamental rights and principles as a basis for the evaluation, as well as the benefits of going beyond minimum legal requirements.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    This paper has been adapted and translated from Christian Ludwig Geminn, Rechtsverträglicher Einsatz von Sicherheitsmaßnahmen im öffentlichen Verkehr (Wiesbaden: Springer Vieweg, 2014).

  2. 2.

    Printed matter (Drucksache) of the German Bundestag No. 17/8500, 6.

  3. 3.

    In the context of this paper, public transportation encompasses civil aviation, bus and train.

  4. 4.

    Commission Regulation (EC) No. 272/2009 of 2 April 2009 supplementing the common basic standards on civil aviation laid down in the Annex to Regulation (EC) No. 300/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council, L 91/7.

  5. 5.

    KORA (concretisation of legal requirements; German: Konkretisierung rechtlicher Anforderungen). The method was introduced in Volker Hammer, Ulrich Pordesch and Alexander Roßnagel, “KORA, Eine Methode zur Konkretisierung rechtlicher Anforderungen zu technischen Gestaltungsvorschlägen,” Infotech/I + G 1 (1993): 21 and Volker Hammer, Ulrich Pordesch and Alexander Roßnagel, Betriebliche Telefon- und ISDN-Anlagen rechtsgemäß gestaltet (Berlin: Springer, 1993) as a tool for the legally compatible design of ISDN communication systems.

  6. 6.

    Among others: ubiquitous computing, electronic voting, software agents, multimedia documents, and mobile commerce. For additional reading on the method (in English) see: Alexander Roßnagel and Silke Jandt, “Socially Compatible Technology Design,” in Socio-technical Design of Ubiquitous Computing Systems, ed. Klaus David, Kurt Geihs, Jan Marco Leimeister, Alexander Roßnagel, Ludger Schmidt, Gerd Stumme, and Arno Wacker (Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 2014), 169 ff.; Axel Hoffmann et al., “Towards the Use of Software Requirement Patterns for Legal Requirements,” in 2nd International Requirements Engineering Efficiency Workshop (REEW) 2012 at REFSQ 2012, Essen, Germany.

  7. 7.

    Cf. the research projects DigiDak (Digitale Daktyloskopie, digital fingerprint identification), CamInSens (distributed smart camera systems) and VASA (Visual Analytics for Security Applications); all sponsored by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. The method proposed here has also been introduced into the SIAM FP7 project (Security Impact Assessment Measures – A decision support system for security technology investments, 261826) as part of the Assessment Support Toolkit developed in the project.

  8. 8.

    Regulation (EC) No. 765/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of July 2008 setting out the requirements for accreditation and market surveillance relating to the marketing of products and repealing Regulation (ECC) No. 339/93, L 218/30.

  9. 9.

    Issued by the European Security Systems Association.

  10. 10.

    Full body scanners are cabin-like devices for the detection of prohibited objects on a person’s body without the need to remove the clothing. The scanners create an image of a person’s body using radiation. Depending on the type of radiation used by the scanner, two basic types of scanners can be identified: millimetre wave scanners and X-ray backscatter scanners.

  11. 11.

    Cf. the ongoing struggle of organisations like the Electronic Privacy Information Center against the use of body scanners in aviation security as an example: http://epic.org/.

  12. 12.

    Cf. the following examples: Caroline Black, “Feds Store Body Scans; US Marshals Saved 35,000 Images from Just One Courthouse,” CBS News Online, August 5, 2010, accessed September 13, 2013, http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504083_162-20012785-504083.html; Edecio Martinez and Kevin Hayes, “Penis Jokes Turn TSA Worker Testy; Attacks Co-Worker, Say Police,” CBS News Online, May 7, 2010, accessed September 13, 2013, http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-504083_162-20004436-504083.html; Kim Zetter, “Female Passengers Say They Were Targeted for TSA Body Scanners,” Wired, February 14, 2012, accessed September 13, 2013, http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2012/02/female-body-scans/; Michael Holden, “Airport worker warned in scanner ogling claim,” Reuters Online, March 24, 2010, accessed September 13, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/03/24/us-britain-scanner-odd-idUSTRE62N52E20100324.

  13. 13.

    Cf. Section 826 of the FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2010, H.R. 658; U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Homeland Security, Subcommittee on Transportation Security, Rebuilding TSA into a Smarter, Leaner Organization, 113th Congress, September 2012, 11.

  14. 14.

    The TSA introduced such a software in 2011 under the heading “Automatic Target Recognition”. Cf. Department of Homeland Security, Privacy Impact Assessment Update for TSA Advanced Imaging Technology, January 25, 2011, http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/privacy/privacy-pia-tsa-ait.pdf, 5.

  15. 15.

    Katalin Busche, “Der Einsatz von Körperscannern auf deutschen Flughäfen: Eine verfassungsrechtliche Bewertung,” Die Öffentliche Verwaltung 6 (2011): 225 ff.; Steffen Kroschwald, Sicherheitsmaßnahmen an Flughäfen im Lichte der Grundrechte (Kassel: Kassel University Press, 2012), 102 ff. The use of X-ray backscatter scanners in Germany is prohibited by § 25 of the German Radiation Control Regulation (Röntgenverordnung).

  16. 16.

    Alexander Roßnagel, Rechtswissenschaftliche Technikfolgenforschung: Umrisse einer Forschungsdisziplin (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1993), 16 ff.; Gerrit Hornung, Die digitale Identität: Rechtsprobleme von Chipkartenausweisen (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2005), 87 f. In some cases emergency solutions are implemented. One example for this is an ISDN infrastructure without the capability to suppress caller ID. This feature could not be added without significant effort, so the view screens that displayed the telephone numbers of incoming calls were pasted over: Alexander Roßnagel, “Rechtswissenschaftliche Technikfolgenforschung am Beispiel der Informations- und Kommunikationstechniken,” in Technische Innovation und Recht, Antrieb oder Hemmnis?, ed. Martin Schulte (Heidelberg: C. F. Müller, 1997), 139. Such ‘low tech’ solutions will however not be possible in most cases and are moreover usually dissatisfactory.

  17. 17.

    For a list of medical studies of the use of ionising radiation for detection and further references see COM(2010) 311 final, fn. 27. Consequently, only body scanners that do not use ionising radiation may be used in the context of aviation security in the European Union; cf. Chapter 4, 4.1.1.2 d) of the Annex of Regulation (EU) No. 185/2010.

  18. 18.

    Helmut Laux, Robert Gillenkirch, and Heike Schenk-Mathes, Entscheidungstheorie (Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 2012), 3.

  19. 19.

    Niklas Luhmann, Die Wirtschaft der Gesellschaft (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1989), 275.

  20. 20.

    For information on the prescriptive decision theory and the formal decision theory which are also recognized see Susanne Bartscher and Paul Bomke, Unternehmungspolitik (Stuttgart: Schäffer-Poeschel, 1995), 54.

  21. 21.

    Bartscher and Bomke, Unternehmungspolitik, 54.

  22. 22.

    Laux, Gillenkirch and Schenk-Mathes, Entscheidungstheorie, 4.

  23. 23.

    These norms however are not just understood as guides in a positive sense, but also in a negative sense as coercion and constraints. Luhmann, Die Wirtschaft der Gesellschaft, 284 f. This means for the decision process that it has to be revealed ‘which expectations a certain course of decision would violate and whether or not one can want or accept that’. Luhmann, Die Wirtschaft der Gesellschaft, 286.

  24. 24.

    Luhmann, Die Wirtschaft der Gesellschaft, 293 f.

  25. 25.

    Wolfgang Kilian, Juristische Entscheidung und elektronische Datenverarbeitung (Frankfurt am Main: Athenäum, 1974), 151.

  26. 26.

    Bartscher and Bomke, Unternehmungspolitik, 54.

  27. 27.

    Bartscher and Bomke, Unternehmungspolitik, 57.

  28. 28.

    Kilian, Juristische Entscheidung, 158.

  29. 29.

    Michael Bock, Kriminologie (München: Vahlen, 2007), para. 177.

  30. 30.

    Laux, Gillenkirch and Schenk-Mathes, Entscheidungstheorie, 18.

  31. 31.

    Cf. Laux, Gillenkirch and Schenk-Mathes, Entscheidungstheorie, 19 ff.

  32. 32.

    Examples of such passages are Exodus 20, 2–17; Matthew 5; Marcus 12, 29, 31. The slogan ‘What would Jesus do?’ which is popular among evangelical Christians also gravitates towards this.

  33. 33.

    Social ethics, and here especially the Christian social ethics, are concerned with this complex of problems.

  34. 34.

    Karl Larenz and Claus-Wilhelm Canaris, Methodenlehre der Rechtswissenschaft (Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 1995), 100.

  35. 35.

    Larenz and Canaris, Methodenlehre, 99.

  36. 36.

    Larenz and Canaris, Methodenlehre, 36.

  37. 37.

    For example the so-called ‘Golden Rule’ (regula aurea): ‘One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself.’

  38. 38.

    Alexander Roßnagel, “‘Technikneutrale’ Regulierung: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen,” in Innovationen und Recht II: Innovationsfördernde Regulierung, ed. Martin Eifert and Wolfgang Hoffmann-Riem (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2009), 336 f.; Sabrina Idecke-Lux, Der Einsatz von multimedialen Dokumenten bei der Genehmigung von neuen Anlagen nach dem Bundesimmissionsschutzgesetz (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2000), 213 ff.

  39. 39.

    Hammer, Pordesch and Roßnagel, Betriebliche Telefon- und ISDN-Anlagen, 46.

  40. 40.

    Roßnagel, Technikfolgenforschung, 196.

  41. 41.

    The rule of constitutionally compatible interpretation demands that from several possible interpretations out of which some would yield a constitutional, some an unconstitutional result, those interpretations must be favoured that are constitutionally compatible; BVerfGE 32, 373, 383 f.; Jörn Lüdemann, “Die verfassungskonforme Auslegung von Gesetzen,” Juristische Schulung 1 (2004): 27 ff.

  42. 42.

    For the USA cf. the seventh rule of the so-called ‘Ashwander Rules’; Ashwander v. Tennesse Valley Authority, 297 U.S. 288 (1936), Crowell v. Benson, 285 U.S. 22 (1932): ‘When the validity of an act of the Congress is drawn in question, and even if a serious doubt of constitutionality is raised, it is a cardinal principle that the Court will first ascertain whether a construction of the statute is fairly possible by which the question may be avoided.’

  43. 43.

    Alexander Roßnagel, Allianz von Medienrecht und Informationstechnik?: Ordnung in digitalen Medien durch Gestaltung der Technik am Beispiel von Urheberschutz, Datenschutz, Jugendschutz und Vielfaltschutz (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2001), 27.

  44. 44.

    Hammer, Pordesch and Roßnagel, Betriebliche Telefon- und ISDN-Anlagen, 47.

  45. 45.

    Hammer, Pordesch and Roßnagel, Betriebliche Telefon- und ISDN-Anlagen, 46; Roßnagel, Allianz von Medienrecht und Informationstechnik?, 29.

  46. 46.

    The exegesis of a legal norm has to be performed with regard to wording and literal sense (grammatical interpretation), text and systematic structure (systematic interpretation), the will of the lawmaker (historical interpretation) and sense and purpose of the norm (teleological interpretation).

  47. 47.

    Alexander Roßnagel et al., Digitalisierung der Grundrechte?: Zur Verfassungsverträglichkeit der Informations- und Kommunikationstechnik (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1990), 7; for a detailed description of this concept see Roßnagel, Technikfolgenforschung, 192 ff.

  48. 48.

    Roßnagel, Technikfolgenforschung, 194.

  49. 49.

    Roßnagel, “Rechtswissenschaftliche Technikfolgenforschung,” 148; Roland Steidle, Multimedia-Assistenten im Betrieb: Datenschutzrechtliche Anforderungen, rechtliche Regelungs- und technische Gestaltungsvorschläge für mobile Agentensysteme (Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universitäts-Verlag, 2005), 60; Roßnagel, Technikfolgenforschung, 26.

  50. 50.

    Roßnagel, Technikfolgenforschung, 193.

  51. 51.

    Roßnagel, Technikfolgenforschung, 194.

  52. 52.

    Roßnagel, Technikfolgenforschung, 16, 28, 67 ff.; Matthias Schwenke, Individualisierung und Datenschutz: Rechtskonformer Umgang mit personenbezogenen Daten im Kontext der Individualisierung (Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universitäts-Verlag, 2006), 11; Ulrich Pordesch, Die elektronische Form und das Präsentationsproblem (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2003), 260; Roßnagel, Allianz von Medienrecht und Informationstechnik?, 30.

  53. 53.

    Examples of such abstract general clauses are § 163(1) and 161 of the German Code of Criminal Procedure (Strafprozessordnung; StPO).

  54. 54.

    Roßnagel, Technikfolgenforschung, 198 f.

  55. 55.

    Steidle, Multimedia-Assistenten im Betrieb, 62.

  56. 56.

    Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, L 281/31.

  57. 57.

    Roßnagel, Technikfolgenforschung, 200.

  58. 58.

    Hammer, Pordesch and Roßnagel, Betriebliche Telefon- und ISDN-Anlagen, 86.

  59. 59.

    Cf. fn. 46.

  60. 60.

    Pordesch, Die elektronische Form, 266 f.

  61. 61.

    As found in Article 52(1) of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.

  62. 62.

    Hammer, Pordesch and Roßnagel, Betriebliche Telefon- und ISDN-Anlagen, 46.

  63. 63.

    Pordesch, Die elektronische Form, 261.

  64. 64.

    In this context, design means any purposeful development and alteration of technical systems; cf. Roßnagel, “Rechtswissenschaftliche Technikfolgenforschung,” 267 f. The normative design approach that this method is based on has to be differentiated from design based on empirical observations.

  65. 65.

    Philip Laue, Vorgangsbearbeitungssysteme in der öffentlichen Verwaltung: Rechtliche Rahmenbedingungen und Gestaltungsanforderungen (Kassel: Kassel University Press, 2010), 65.

  66. 66.

    Pordesch, Die elektronische Form, 267 f. A definition of what is meant by a technical specifications sheet (Lastenheft) can be found in DIN 69905.

  67. 67.

    Katharina Bräunlich et al., “Verbindung von CC-Schutzprofilen mit der Methode rechtlicher IT-Gestaltung KORA,” Datenschutz und Datensicherheit 2 (2011): 130.

  68. 68.

    Volker Hammer et al., Vorlaufende Gestaltung von Telekooperationstechnik: am Beispiel von Verzeichnisdiensten, Personal Digital Assistants und Erreichbarkeitsmanagement in der Dienstleistungsgesellschaft (Sankt Augustin: Gesellschaft für Mathematik und Datenverarbeitung mbH, 1994), 4, 6 f.; Steidle, Multimedia-Assistenten im Betrieb, 64.

  69. 69.

    Christoph Schnabel, Datenschutz bei profilbasierten Location Based Services: Die datenschutzadäquate Gestaltung von Service-Plattformen für Mobilkommunikation (Kassel: Kassel University Press, 2009), 32; Pordesch, Die elektronische Form, 257.

  70. 70.

    The rule of law is mentioned in the preamble of the Charter as one of the principles that the European Union is based on. The rule of law is furthermore postulated by the citizens’ rights contained in chapter V and the judicial rights found in chapter VI of the Charter. Jürgen Meyer, Charta der Grundrechte der Europäischen Union (Baden-Baden: Nomos Kommentar, 2011), Präambel GRCh, para. 9, 34.

  71. 71.

    An exhaustive example based on the body scanner technology can be found in Geminn, Rechtsverträglicher Einsatz von Sicherheitsmaßnahmen im öffentlichen Verkehr, 369 ff. In this exemplary evaluation, all in all 11 legal requirements have been converted into 19 legal criteria and 20 technical objectives, most of which interact.

  72. 72.

    Commission Regulation (EU) No. 185/2010 of 4 March 2010 laying down detailed measures for the implementation of the common basic standards on aviation security, L 55/1. Cf. Chapter 4, 4.1.1.2 d) of the Annex of Regulation (EU) No. 185/2010; additionally see Part A Section 1 Subsection 2 f) of Commission Regulation (EC) No. 272/2009.

  73. 73.

    See fn. 70.

  74. 74.

    Using X-ray backscatter scanners as an example, Cao illustrates how such a complex weighing can look like: Zongjian Cao, “Optimization for the tradeoff of detection efficiency and absorbed dose in x-ray backscatter imaging,” Journal of Transportation Security 1 (2013), 59 ff.

  75. 75.

    Annex Chapter 4 Section 4.1.1.10.

  76. 76.

    David Wright and Paul De Hert, “Introduction to Privacy Impact Assessment,” in Privacy Impact Assessment, ed. David Wright and Paul De Hert (Dordrecht: Springer, 2012), 5. For a comprehensive list of literature on PIA see Information Commissioner’s Office, Conducting privacy impact assessments: code of practice (London: ICO, 2014), 42 f.

  77. 77.

    Wright and De Hert, “Introduction to Privacy Impact Assessment,” 6.

  78. 78.

    David Wright and Paul De Hert, “Findings and Recommendations,” in Privacy Impact Assessment, ed. David Wright and Paul De Hert (Dordrecht: Springer, 2012), 479.

  79. 79.

    See for example Information Commissioner’s Office, Conducting privacy impact assessments, 33; Department of Homeland Security, Privacy Impact Assessments: The Privacy Office Official Guidance (Washington, DC: DHS, 2010), 14 ff.

  80. 80.

    Wright and De Hert, “Findings and Recommendations,” 473: “Questions feature in virtually all PIA methodologies as a way of stimulating consideration of the issues raised by a new technology, service or policy.”

  81. 81.

    Wright and De Hert, “Findings and Recommendations,” 479.

  82. 82.

    Steidle, Multimedia-Assistenten im Betrieb, 55.

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  1. Research Center for Information System Design (ITeG), Kassel University, Kassel, Germany

    Christian Ludwig Geminn & Alexander Roßnagel

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  1. Law, Science, Technology & Society (LSTS), Faculty of Law and Criminology at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium

    Serge Gutwirth

  2. Tilburg Institute for Law, Technology, and Society (TILT), Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands

    Ronald Leenes

  3. Law, Science, Technology & Society (LSTS), Faculty of Law and Criminology at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium

    Paul de Hert

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Geminn, C.L., Roßnagel, A. (2015). A Systematic Approach to the Legal Evaluation of Security Measures in Public Transportation. In: Gutwirth, S., Leenes, R., de Hert, P. (eds) Reforming European Data Protection Law. Law, Governance and Technology Series(), vol 20. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9385-8_3

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