Zusammenfassung
Wann haben Sie sich zuletzt verliebt? Wie häufig hatten Sie schon Liebeskummer? Hand aufs Herz: Über wen haben Sie sich in den vergangenen Wochen am meisten aufgeregt, über Ihren Freund/Ihre Freundin, einen Mitbewohner oder Ihre Eltern? Oder auch einen Dozenten, einen Sporttrainer oder einen Kommilitonen? Ob Liebes-, Arbeits-, Wohnbeziehung – soziale Beziehungen bestimmen unseren Alltag. Denn wir verbringen ihn mit Menschen, mit denen uns, ob gewollt oder nicht gewollt, Beziehungen verbinden: Wir haben Freunde, Verwandte, Vorgesetzte, Partner, manchmal auch Geliebte und zuweilen auch ein paar Feinde. In diesem Kapitel erfahren Sie, was Beziehungen unterschiedlicher Art aus sozialpsychologischer Sicht charakterisiert und welche Bedeutung Beziehungen für unser Wohlbefinden und unsere Gesundheit haben (Abschn. 1.1). Anschließend lesen Sie, welche Faktoren die Aufnahme einer Beziehung wahrscheinlicher machen (Abschn. 1.2). Sie lernen darüber hinaus die sozialpsychologische Sicht auf die Thematik „Liebe“ kennen sowie typische Verläufe von Paarbeziehungen, Forschung zum Umgang mit Krisen in der Partnerschaft und zu Auswirkungen von Trennungen (Abschn. 1.3).
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Notes
- 1.
Ein vierter Bindungsstil, das unsicher-desorganisierte Bindungsmuster, wurde später von Main und Solomon (1986) eingeführt.
- 2.
Allerdings lag der Forschungsschwerpunkt lange Zeit auf der Mutter-Kind-Bindung, wie beispielsweise in Beispielstudie 1.2.
- 3.
In neuerer Forschung werden Bindungsstile meist anhand zweier Dimensionen gemessen: hoch oder niedrig ängstlich und hoch oder niedrig vermeidend (Bartholomew und Horowitz 1991; Fraley et al. 2000). Die Dimension Bindungsangst beinhaltet Sorgen, abgelehnt und verlassen zu werden. Ein Beispielitem lautet: „Ich habe Angst, die Liebe meines Partners/meiner Partnerin zu verlieren.“ Bindungsvermeidung, die zweite Dimension, betrifft den Grad, in dem man es unangenehm findet, von anderen abzuhängen und anderen emotional nahe zu sein. Ein Beispielitem ist: „Ich ziehe es vor, meinem Partner/meiner Partnerin nicht zu nahe zu sein“ (Ehrenthal et al. 2009). Ein sicherer Bindungsstil zeichnet sich durch niedrige Werte auf beiden Skalen aus.
- 4.
Eine gleich starke Bindung an beide Eltern oder eine stärkere an den Vater sind jedoch genauso gut möglich.
- 5.
Allerdings sind Geschwister auch eine Konkurrenz um die Aufmerksamkeit, Zuwendung und Unterstützung der Eltern. Im Schnitt und nach Kontrolle für Variablen wie sozioökonomischen Status ergeben sich für Einzelkinder im Vergleich zu Kindern mit Geschwistern kaum Unterschiede (Lubbers et al. 2006; Trent und Spitze 2011), in einigen Studien aber Vorteile bei Leistungstests und Nachteile bei sozialer Kompetenz mit Gleichaltrigen (Downey und Condron 2004; Kitzmann et al. 2002; für einen Überblick vgl. Mancillas 2006).
- 6.
Evolutionstheoretische Erklärungen für diese Befunde führen an, dass Großeltern durch das Investieren in ihre Enkel ihre inklusive Fitness steigern und dass Großmütter mütterlicherseits sich ihrer genetischen Verwandtschaft besonders sicher sein können – ganz nach dem umgangssprachlichen Motto „Mother’s baby, father’s maybe“ (Jamison et al. 2002; Voland und Beise 2002).
- 7.
Der Begriff Sharing Economy bezieht sich auf eine geteilte Nutzung von ganz oder teilweise ungenutzten Ressourcen.
- 8.
Scoping Reviews liefern eine deskriptive Zusammenfassung der Literatur (in der Regel ohne Anspruch auf Qualitätsbewertung der Studien). Sie gelten als Vorstufe zum systematischen Review und unterscheiden sich von ihm u. a. darin, dass sie Forschungsfragen weit fassen, Ein- und Ausschlusskriterien im Nachhinein festlegen sowie Parameter und Lücken in der Literatur identifizieren (Armstrong et al. 2011). Im Unterschied zum Scoping Review ermöglichen sog. Metaanalysen (▶ Sozialpsychologie I, Abschn. 2.3) Aussagen über die Größe eines Effekts und resultieren in einer gesamtstatistischen Auswertung (Schmidt und Hunter 2015).
- 9.
Hinweis: Ein Korrelationskoeffizient von .00 bedeutet keine Übereinstimmung, 1.00 eine 100 %ige Übereinstimmung.
- 10.
Diese Aufteilung nach Sternberg (1988) ist natürlich nur eine unter mehreren möglichen. Zwar konnte gezeigt werden, dass fast alle Aspekte von Paarbeziehungen zu einem der drei Faktoren passen (Aron und Westbay 1996), doch heißt dies nicht, dass andere Aufteilungen nicht noch geeigneter sein könnten. Eine Aufteilung nach den adaptiven Funktionen Sexualität, Fürsorge und Bindung (Shaver und Hazan 1988) oder Lust, Anziehung und Bindung (H. Fisher 2006) hat beispielsweise den Vorteil, dass man begründete Annahmen zum evolutionären Ursprung der Komponenten machen (beispielsweise, dass sich Fürsorge und Bindung aus der elterlichen Fürsorge und Bindung entwickelt haben) und diese empirisch überprüfen kann.
- 11.
Dopamin fungiert im menschlichen Gehirn unter anderem als ein Botenstoff in Motivationssystemen, die Willen, Anstrengung und Annäherungsmotivation regulieren (Nutt et al. 2015).
- 12.
Bisexuelle Menschen fühlen sich sowohl zu Männern als auch zu Frauen sexuell hingezogen oder, anders gesagt, zu Menschen unabhängig von deren Geschlecht.
- 13.
Als transsexuelle Personen werden Menschen bezeichnet, deren Geschlechtsidentität von ihrem biologischen oder gesellschaftlich zugeschriebenen Geschlecht abweicht. Die Begriffe „transsexuell“, „Transgender“ oder „Transidentität“ bezeichnen daher keine sexuelle Orientierung. Transsexuelle Personen können sowohl hetero-, homo-, bi- als auch asexuell sein. Operative Veränderungen biologischer Geschlechtsmerkmale werden von manchen Personen in dieser Gruppe gewünscht, von anderen abgelehnt.
- 14.
„Queer“ ist ein Sammelbegriff, der Menschen unterschiedlichster sexueller Orientierungen und geschlechtlicher Identitäten beschreibt, also z. B. Lesben, Schwule, Bisexuelle oder transsexuelle Personen, die sich bewusst von normativen Geschlechtervorstellungen abgrenzen wollen.
- 15.
Ein Zeichen, dass Scheidungen nicht mehr mit einem Stigma verbunden, sondern vielmehr sozial akzeptiert sind, ist der Trend, seine Scheidung mit einer Party zu feiern (Rinderspacher 2018).
- 16.
In die Messung des Nutzens fließt ein, wie viele positive Beziehungsaspekte erlebt werden und in welchem Ausmaß diese vorhanden sind (z. B. „Mein Partner ist intelligent“ oder „Ich fühle mich von meinem Partner akzeptiert“; Bui et al. 1996).
- 17.
Gesellschaftsspiele wie Der wahre Walter, Wahrheit oder Pflicht, Ego, Privacy, Therapy, Ich habe noch nie … oder Wer im Raum … basieren darauf, dass sie Selbstoffenbarung legitimieren oder „einfordern“.
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Werth, L., Seibt, B., Mayer, J. (2020). Beziehungen. In: Sozialpsychologie – Der Mensch in sozialen Beziehungen. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-53899-9_1
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