Skip to main content

Zusammenfassung

In diesem Kapitel wird der Begriff Schmerz definiert und die Abgrenzung zwischen akuten und chronischen Schmerzen besprochen. Weiterhin wird eine biopsychosoziale Sichtweise zum Schmerzverständnis vermittelt.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Literatur

  • Alonso-Blanco C, Fernandez-de-Las-Penas C, Fernández-Mayoralas DM, de-la-Llave-Rincón AI, Pareja JA, Svensson P (2011) Prevalence and anatomical localization of muscle referred pain from active trigger points in head and neck musculature in adults and children with chronic tension-type headache. Pain Med 12: 1453–1463

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anand KJ (1993) The applied physiology of pain. In: Anand KJ, Mc Grath PJ (eds) Pain in neonates. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 39–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Asmundson GJ, Noel M, Petter M, Parkerson HA (2012) Pediatric fear-avoidance model of chronic pain: Foundation, application and future directions. Pain Res Manag 17: 397–405

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakker A, Maertens KJ, Van Son MJ, Van Loey NE (2013) Psychological consequences of pediatric burns from a child and family perspective: A review of the empirical literature. Clin Psychol Rev 33: 361–371

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura A (ed) (1977) Social Learning Theory. General Learning Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Bas B, Ferner E, Ernstberger P, et al (2013) Versorgungslage chronisch schmerzkranker Menschen. Antwort der Bundesregierung auf die kleine Anfrage der SPD-Bundestagsfraktion (BT-Drs. 17/14357) vom 22. August 2013. Deutscher Bundestag, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumgart DC, Sandborn WJ (2012) Crohn’s disease. Lancet 380: 1590–1605

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birchfield PC (2001) Osteoarthritis overview. Geriatr Nur (Lond) 22: 124–131

    Google Scholar 

  • Bufler P, Gross M, Uhlig HH (2011) Recurrent abdominal pain in childhood. Dt Ärztebl Intern 108: 295–304

    Google Scholar 

  • Caes L, Vervoort T, Trost Z, Goubert L (2012a) Impact of parental catastrophizing and contextual threat on parents’ emotional and behavioral responses to their child’s pain. Pain 153: 687–195

    Google Scholar 

  • Caes L, Vervoort T, Eccleston C, Goubert L (2012b) Parents who catastrophize about their child’s pain prioritize attempts to control pain. Pain 153: 1695–1701

    Google Scholar 

  • Castilloux J, Noble A, Faure C (2008) Is visceral hypersensitivity correlated with symptom severity in children with functional gastrointestinal disorders? J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 46: 272–278

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers CT, Taddio A, Uman LS, McMurtry CM (2009) Psychological interventions for reducing pain and distress during routine childhood immunizations: A systematic review. Clin Ther 31: S77–S103

    Google Scholar 

  • Champion D, Pathirana S, Flynn C, Taylor A, Hopper JL, Berkovic SF, Jaaniste T, Qiu W (2012) Growing pains: Twin family study evidence for genetic susceptibility and a generic relationship with restless legs syndrome. Eur J Pain 16: 1224–1231

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen E, Zeltzer LK, Craske MG, Katz ER (1999) Alteration of memory in the reduction of children’s distress during repeated aversive medical procedures. J Consult Clin Psychol 67: 481–490

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen E, Craske MG, Katz ER, Schwartz E, Zeltzer LK (2000) Pain-sensitive temperament: Does it predict procedural distress and response to psychological treatment among children with cancer? J Pediatr Psychol 25: 269–278

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coghill RC, McHaffie JG, Yen YF (2003) Neural correlates of interindividual differences in the subjective experience of pain. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 100: 8538–8542

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Craig KD (2009) The social communication model of pain. Can Psychol 50: 22–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crombez G, Bijttebier P, Eccleston C, Mascagni T, Mertens G, Goubert L, Verstraeten K (2003) The child version of the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS-C): A preliminary validation. Pain 104: 639–646

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crombez G, van Damme S, Eccleston C (2005) Hypervigilance to pain: an experimental and clinical analysis. Pain 116: 4–7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Devanarayana NM, Rajindrajith S, Rathnamalala N, Samaraweera S, Benninga MA (2012) Delayed gastric emptying rates and impaired antral motility in children fulfilling Rome III criteria for functional abdominal pain. Neurogastroenterol Motil 24: 420–425

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diatchenko L, Fillingim RB, Smith SB, Maixner W (2013) The phenotypic and genetic signatures of common musculoskeletal pain conditions. Nat Revi Rheumatol 9: 340–350

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drossman DA, Corazziari E, Delvaux M, Spiller RC, Talley NJ, Thompson WG, Whitehead WE (eds) (2006) Rome III: The functional gastrointestinal disorders. Degnon Associates, McLean, VA

    Google Scholar 

  • Du Y, Knopf H, Zhuang W, Ellert U (2011) Pain perceived in a national community sample of German children and adolescents. Eur J Pain 15: 649–657

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eccleston C (2001) Role of psychology in pain. Br J Anaesth 87: 144–152

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evans S, Lu Q, Tsao JC, Zelter LK (2008) The role of coping and race in healthy children’s experimental pain responses. J Pain Manag 1: 151

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faingold R, Saigal G, Azouz EM, Morales A, Albuquerque PA (2004) Imaging of low back pain in children and adolescents. Sem Ultrasound CT MRI 25: 490–505

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faure C, Wieckowska A (2007) Somatic referral of visceral sensations and rectal sensory threshold for pain in children with functional gastrointestinal disorders. J Pediatr 150: 66–71

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fine JD (2010) Review: Inherited epidermolysis bullosa. Orphanet J Rare Dis 5: 12

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flor H, Diers M (2006) Limitations of pharmacotherapy: Behavioral approaches to chronic pain. In: Stein C (ed) Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. 177th ed. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 415–427

    Google Scholar 

  • Fordyce WE (1976) Behavioral methods for chronic pain and illness. Mosby, St. Louis

    Google Scholar 

  • Forgeron PA, King S, Stinson JN, McGrath PJ, MacDonald AJ, Chambers CT (2010) Social functioning and peer relationships in children and adolescents with chronic pain: A systematic review. Pain Res Manag 15: 27–41

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Forgeron PA, McGrath P, Stevens B, Evans J, Dick B, Finley GA, Carlson T (2011) Social information processing in adolescents with chronic pain: My friends don’t really understand me. Pain 152: 2773–2780

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gatchel RJ, Peng YB, Peters ML, Fuchs PN, Turk DC (2007) The biopsychosocial approach to chronic pain: Scientific advances and future directions. Psychol Bull 133: 581–624

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gijsbers CFM, Kneepkens CMF, Schweizer JJ, Benninga MA, Büller HA (2011) Recurrent abdominal pain in 200 children: Somatic causes and diagnostic criteria. Acta Paediatr 100: e208–e214

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gijsbers CFM, Kneepkens CMF, Büller HA (2012) Lactose and fructose malabsorption in children with recurrent abdominal pain: results of double-blinded testing. Acta Paediatr 101: e411–e415

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goubert L, Craig KD, Vervoort T, Morley S, Sullivan MJL, Williams AC, Cano A, Crombez G (2005) Facing others in pain: The effects of empathy. Pain 118: 285–288

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goubert L, Vlaeyen JW, Crombez G, Craig KD (2011) Learning about pain from others: An observational learning account. J Pain 12: 167–174

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goubert L, Vervoort T, Ruddere L, Crombez G (2012) The impact of parental gender, catastrophizing and situational threat upon parental behaviour to child pain: A vignette study. Eur J Pain 16: 1176–1184

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greco LA, Freeman KE, Dufton L (2007) Overt and relational victimazation among children with frequent abdominal pain: Links to social skills, academic funktioning, and health service use. J Pediatr Psychol 32: 319–329

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grudell ABM, Camilleri M, Carlson P, Groman H, Ryks M, Burton D, Baxter K, Zinsmeister AR (2008) An exploratory study of the association of adrenergic and serotonergic genotype and gastrointestinal motor functions. Neurogastroenterol Motil 20: 213–219

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes SC, Strosahl KD, Wilson KG (2012) Acceptance and commitment therapy: an experiential approach to behavior change, Guilford Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Hechler T, Kosfelder J, Denecke H, Dobe M, Hübner B, Martin A, Menke A, Schroeder S, Marbach S, Zernikow B (2008) Schmerzbezogene Copingstrategien von Kindern und Jugendlichen mit chronischen Schmerzen: Überprüfung einer deutschen Fassung der Paediatric Pain Coping Inventory (PPCI-revised). Schmerz 22: 442–457

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hermann C, Hohmeister J, Demirakca S, Zohsel K, Flor H (2006) Long-term alteration of pain sensitivity in school-aged children with early pain experiences. Pain 125: 278–285

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hermann C, Hohmeister J, Zohsel K, Ebinger F, Flor H (2007) The assessment of pain coping and pain-related cognitions in children and adolescents: Current methods and further development. J Pain 8: 802–813

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hermann C, Zohsel K, Hohmeister J, Flor H (2008) Dimensions of pain-related parent behavior: Development and psychometric evaluation of a new measure for children and their parents. Pain 137: 689–699

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschfeld G, Wager J, Zernikow B (2014) Predictors of health care utilization in young children with recurrent pain-a population-based study. PeerJ PrePrints 2:e618v1

    Google Scholar 

  • Hjern A, Alfven G, Östberg V (2008) School stressors, psychological complaints and psychosomatic pain. Acta Paediatr 97: 112–117

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman I, Vos R, Tack J (2007) Assessment of gastric sensorimotor function in paediatric patients with unexplained dyspeptic symptoms and poor weight gain. J Neurogastroenterol Motil 19: 173–179

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoftun GB, Romundstad P, Rygg M (2013) Association of parental chronic pain with chronic pain in the adolescent and young adult. JAMA pediatrics 167: 61–69

    Google Scholar 

  • Huguet A, Miro J (2008) The severity of chronic paediatric pain: An epidemiological study. J Pain 9: 226–236

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langan RC, Gotsch PB, Krafczyk MA, Skillinge DD (2007) Ulcerative colitis: Diagnosis and treatment. Am Fam Physician 76: 1323–1330

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Legrain V, Iannetti GD, Plaghki L, Mouraux A (2011) The pain matrix reloaded. A salience detection system for the body. Prog Neurobiol 93: 111–124

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levy RL, Van Tilburg MA (2012) Functional abdominal pain in childhood: Background studies and recent research trends. Pain Res Manag 17: 413–417

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis M, Ramsay DS, Kawakami K (1993) Differences between Japanese infants and Caucasian American infants in behavioral and cortisol response to inoculation. Child Dev 64: 1722–1731

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Logan DE, Catanese SP, Coakley RM, Scharff L (2007) Chronic pain in the classroom: teachers’ attributions about the causes of chronic pain. J Sch Health 77: 248–256

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Logan DE, Simons LE (2010) Development of a group intervention to improve school functioning in adolescents with chronic pain and depressive symptoms: a study of feasibility and preliminary efficacy. J Pediatr Psychol 35: 823–836

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Logan DE, Simsons LE, Stein MJ, Chastain L (2008) School impairment in adolescents with chronic pain. J Pain 9: 407–416

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magni G, Moreschi C, Rigatti-Luchini S, Merkey H (1994) Prospective study on the relationship between depressive symptoms and chronic musculoskeletal pain. Pain 56: 289–297

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin AL, McGrath PA, Brown SC, Katz J (2007) Anxiety sensitivity, fear of pain and pain-related disability in children and adolescents with chronic pain. Pain Res Manag 12: 267–272

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCluskey G, O’Kane E, Hann D, Weekes J, Rooney M (2012) Hypermobility and musculoskeletal pain in children: A systematic review. Scand J Rheumatol 41: 329–338

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merlijn VP, Hunfeld JAM, van der Wouden JC, Hazebroek-Kampschreur AA, Koes B, Passchier J (2003) Psychosocial factors associated with chronic pain in adolescents. Pain 101: 33–43

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merskey H, Bogduk N (1994) Classification of chronic pain, IASP Task Force on Taxonomy. IASP Press, Seattle

    Google Scholar 

  • Metsahonkala L, Anttila P, Laimi K, Aromaa M, Helenius H, Mikkelsson M, Jäppilä E, Viander S, Sillanpää M, Salminen J (2006) Extracephalic tenderness and pressure pain threshold in children with headache. Eur J Pain 10: 581–585

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miro J, Huguet A, Nieto R (2007) Predictive factors of chronic pediatric pain and disability: A Delphi Poll. J Pain 8: 774–792

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pagé MG, Stinson J, Campbell F, Isaac L, Katz J (2013) Identification of pain-related psychological risk factors for the development and maintenance of pediatric chronic postsurgical pain. J Pain Res 6: 167–180

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petty RE, Southwood TR, Manners P, Baum J, Glass DN, Goldenberg J, He X, Maldonado-Cocco J, Orozco-Alcala J, Prieur AM, Suarez-Almazor ME, Woo P (2004) International League of Associations for Rheumatology classification of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: second revision, Edmonton, 2001. J Rheumatol 31: 390–392

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rauch F, Glorieux FH (2004) Osteogenesis imperfecta. Lancet 363: 1377–1385

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reid GJ, Gilbert CA, McGrath PA (1998) The Pain Coping Questionnaire: preliminary validation. Pain 76: 83–96

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosmus C, Johnston CCl, Chan-Yip A, Yang F (2000) Pain response in Chinese and non-Chinese Canadian infants: is there a difference? Soc Sci Med 51: 175–184

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell MB (2008) Is migraine a genetic illness? The various forms of migraine share a common genetic cause. Neurol Sci 29: 52–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sandvik H, Hunskaar S, Diaz E (2012) Immigrants’ use of emergency primary health care in Norway: a registry-based observational study. BMJ Open 12(1): 308

    Google Scholar 

  • Saps M, Pensabene L, Di Martino L, Staiano A, Wechsler J, Zheng X, Di Lorenzo C (2008) Post-infectious functional gastrointestinal disorders in children. J Pediatr 152: 812–816

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saps M, Lu P, Bonilla S (2011) Cow’s-milk allergy is a risk factor for the development of FGIDs in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 52: 166–169

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sato AF, Hainsworth KR, Khan KA, Ladwig RJ, Weisman SJ, Davies WH (2007) School absenteeism in pediatric chronic pain: Identifying lessons learned from the general school absenteeism literature. Child Health Care 36: 355–372

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saulnier DM, Riehle K, Mistretta T-A, Diaz M-A, Mandal D, Raza S, Weidler EM, Qin X, Coarfa C, Milosavljevic A, Petrosino JF, Highlander S, Gibbs R, Lynch SV, Shulman RJ, Versalovic J (2011) Gastrointestinal microbiome signatures of pediatric patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 141: 1782–1791

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schanberg LE, Anthony KK, Gil KM, Lefebvre JC, Kredich DW, Macharoni LM (2001) Family pain history predicts child health status in children with chronic rheumatic disease. Pediatrics 108: e47

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shulman RJ, Eakin MN, Czyzewski DI, Jarrett M, Ou CN (2008) Increased gastrointestinal permeability and gut inflammation in children with functional abdominal pain and irritable bowel syndrome. J Pediatr 153: 646–650

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simons LE, Sieberg CB, Carpino E, Logan D, Berde C (2011) The Fear of Pain Questionnaire (FOPQ): Assessment of pain-related fear among children and adolescents with chronic pain. J Pain 12: 677–686

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh P, Agnihotri A, Pathak MK, Shirazi A, Tiwari RP, Sreenivas V, Sagar R, Makharia GK (2012) Psychiatric, somatic and other functional gastrointestinal disorders in patients with irritable bowel syndrome at a tertiary care center. Neurogastroenterol Motil 18: 324–331

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soee AL, Thomsen LL, Tornoe B, Skov L (2013) Reliability of four experimental mechanical pain tests in children. J Pain Res 6: 103–110

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stam AH, Haan J, van den Maagdenberg AMJM, Ferrari MD, Terwindt GM (2009) Migraine and genetic and acquired vasculopathies. Cephalalgia 29: 1006–1017

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stanford EA, Chambers CT, Biesanz JC, Chen E (2008) The frequency, trajectories and predictors of adolescent recurrent pain: A population-based approach. Pain 138: 11–21

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan MJL, Bishop SR, Pivik J (1995) The Pain Catastrophizing Scale: Development and validation. Psychol Assess 7: 524–532

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tobias JH, Deere K, Palmer S, Clark EM, Clinch J (2013) Joint hypermobility is a risk factor for musculoskeletal pain during adolescence: Findings of a prospective cohort study. Arthritis Rheum 65: 1107–1115

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsao JC, Evans S, Seidman LC, Zeltzer LK (2012) Experimental pain responses in children with chronic pain and in healthy children: How do they differ? Pain Res Manag 17: 103–109

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turk DC, Okifuji A (1999) Assessment of patients’ reporting of pain: An integrated perspective. Lancet 353: 1784–1788

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uman LS, Chambers CT, McGrath PJ, Kisely S (2008) A systematic review of randomized controlled trials examining psychological interventions for needle-related procedural pain and distress in children and adolescents: An abbreviated Cochrane Review. J Pediatr Psychol 33: 842–854

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vlaeyen JW, Linton SJ (2012) Fear-avoidance model of chronic musculoskeletal pain: 12 years on. Pain 153: 1144–1147

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Von Korff M, Ormel J, Keefe FJ, Dworkin SF (1992) Grading the severity of pain. Pain 50: 133–149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wager J, Hechler T, Darlington AS, Hirschfeld G, Vocks S, Zernikow B (2013) Classifying the severity of paediatric chronic pain – an application of the chronic pain grading. Eur J Pain 17: 1393–1402

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walker LS, Williams SE, Smith CA, Garber J, Van Slyke DA, Lipani TA (2006) Parent attention versus distraction: Impact on symptom complaints by children with and without chronic functional abdominal pain. Pain 122: 43–52

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walker LS, Smith CA, Garber J, Claar RL (2007) Appraisal and coping with daily stressors by pediatric patients with chronic abdominal pain. J Pediatr Psychol 32: 206–216

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walker LS, Sherman AL, Bruehl S, Garber J, Smith CA (2012) Functional abdominal pain patient subtypes in childhood predict functional gastrointestinal disorders with chronic pain and psychiatric comorbidities in adolescence and adulthood. Pain 153: 1798–1806

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilder-Smith CH (2011) The balancing act: endogenous modulation of pain in functional gastrointestinal disorders. GUT 60: 1589–1599

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson AC, Lewandowski AS, Palermo TM (2011) Fear-avoidance beliefs and parental responses to pain in adolescents with chronic pain. Pain Res Manag 16: 178–182

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woolf CJ (2011) Central sensitization: implications for the diagnosis and treatment of pain. Pain 152: S2–S15

    Google Scholar 

  • Zernikow B, Wager J, Hechler T, Hasan C, Rohr U, Dobe M, Meyer A, Hübner-Möhler B, Wamsler C, Blankenburg M (2012) Characteristics of highly impaired children with severe chronic pain: a 5-year retrospective study on 2249 pediatric pain patients. BMC Pediatrics 12: 1–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Julia Wager .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Wager, J., Zernikow, B. (2015). Was ist Schmerz?. In: Zernikow, B. (eds) Schmerztherapie bei Kindern, Jugendlichen und jungen Erwachsenen. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45057-4_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45057-4_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-662-45056-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-662-45057-4

  • eBook Packages: Medicine (German Language)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics