Abstract
Adults aged 65 years and older are the fastest growing age group worldwide. Future autonomous vehicles may help to support the mobility of older individuals; however, these cars will not be widely available for several decades and current semi-autonomous vehicles often require manual takeover in unusual driving conditions. In these situations, the vehicle issues a takeover request in any uni-, bi- or trimodal combination of visual, auditory, or tactile alerts to signify the need for manual intervention. However, to date, it is not clear whether age-related differences exist in the perceived ease of detecting these alerts. Also, the extent to which engagement in non-driving-related tasks affects this perception in younger and older drivers is not known. Therefore, the goal of this study was to examine the effects of age on the ease of perceiving takeover requests in different sensory channels and on attention allocation during conditional driving automation. Twenty-four younger and 24 older adults drove a simulated SAE Level 3 vehicle under three conditions: baseline, while performing a non-driving-related task, and while engaged in a driving-related task, and were asked to rate the ease of detecting uni-, bi- or trimodal combinations of visual, auditory, or tactile signals. Both age groups found the trimodal alert to be the easiest to detect. Also, older adults focused more on the road than the secondary task compared to younger drivers. Findings may inform the development of next-generation of autonomous vehicle systems to be safe for a wide range of age groups.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Favarò, F., Eurich, S., Nader, N.: Autonomous vehicles’ disengagements: trends, triggers, and regulatory limitations. Accid. Anal. Prev. 110, 136–148 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2017.11.001
Wan, J., Wu, C.: The effects of lead time of take-over request and nondriving tasks on taking-over control of automated vehicles. IEEE Trans. Hum.-Mach. Syst. 48, 582–591 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/THMS.2018.2844251
Anderson, J., Kalra, N., Stanley, K., Sorensen, P., Samaras, C., Oluwatola, O.: Autonomous Vehicle Technology: A Guide for Policymakers. Rand Corporation (2014). https://doi.org/10.7249/rr443-2
Bishop, R.: Intelligent vehicle applications worldwide. IEEE Intell. Syst. Their Appl. 15, 78–81 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1109/5254.820333
Young, M.S., Stanton, N.A.: What’s skill got to do with it? Vehicle automation and driver mental workload. Ergonomics 50, 1324–1339 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1080/00140130701318855
Saffarian, M., de Winter, J.C.F., Happee, R.: Automated driving: human-factors issues and design solutions. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet. 56, 2296–2300 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1177/1071181312561483
Litman, T.: Autonomous Vehicle Implementation Predictions: Implications for Transport Planning (2019)
Erber, J.T.: Aging and older adulthood, p. 466. Hoboken, Wiley-Blackwell (2012)
Czaja, S.J., Boot, W.R., Charness, N., Rogers, W.A.: Designing for Older Adults: Principles and Creative Human Factors Approaches. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2019). https://doi.org/10.1201/b22189
Anstey, K.J., Wood, J., Lord, S., Walker, J.G.: Cognitive, sensory and physical factors enabling driving safety in older adults. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 25, 45–65 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2004.07.008
Lemke, U.: The challenges of aging – sensory, cognitive, socio-emotional and health changes in old age. In: Hearing Care for Adults 2009—The Challenge of Aging. Proceedings of the 2nd International Adult Conference, pp. 33–43. Phonak AG, Stäfa (2009)
Eby, D., Molnar, L.J., Zhang, L., St Louis, R.M., Zanier, N., Kostyniuk, L.P.: Keeping older adults driving safely: a research synthesis of advanced in-vehicle technologies. AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety (2015)
Molnar, L.J., Eby, D.W., St Louis, R.M., Neumeyer, A.L.: Promising approaches for promoting lifelong community mobility, Ann Arbor (2007)
Hassan, H., King, M., Watt, K.: The perspectives of older drivers on the impact of feedback on their driving behaviours: a qualitative study. Transp. Res. Part F: Traffic Psychol. Behav. 28, 25–39 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TRF.2014.11.003
SAE International: Automated driving: levels of driving automation are defined in new SAE international standard J3016, no. 1. SAE International (2014)
Eriksson, A., Stanton, N.A.: takeover time in highly automated vehicles: noncritical transitions to and from manual control. Hum. Factors 59, 689–705 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720816685832
Llaneras, R.E., Salinger, J., Green, C.A.: Human factors issues associated with limited ability autonomous driving systems: Drivers’ allocation of visual attention to the forward roadway. In: Proceedings of the Seventh International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training, and Vehicle Design, pp. 92–98 (2013). https://doi.org/10.17077/drivingassessment.1472
Zhang, B., de Winter, J., Varotto, S., Happee, R., Martens, M.: Determinants of take-over time from automated driving: A meta-analysis of 129 studies. Transp. Res. Part F: Traffic Psychol. Behav. 64, 285–307 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2019.04.020
Mcdonald, A., Alambeigi, H.: Towards computational simulations of behavior during automated driving take- overs : a review of the empirical and modeling literatures (2019)
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration: Automated Driving Systems 2.0: A Vision for Safety (2017)
Politis, I., Brewster, S., Pollick, F.: Using Multimodal Displays to Signify Critical Handovers of Control to Distracted Autonomous Car Drivers. Int. J. Mob. Hum. Comput. Interact. 9, 1–16 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbapap.2014.08.013
Huang, G., Steele, C., Zhang, X., Pitts, B.J.: Multimodal cue combinations: a possible approach to designing in-vehicle takeover requests for semi-autonomous driving. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet. 63, 1739–1743 (2019)
Yoon, S.H., Kim, Y.W., Ji, Y.G.: The effects of takeover request modalities on highly automated car control transitions. Accid. Anal. Prev. 123, 150–158 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2018.11.018
Pitts, B.J., Sarter, N.: What you don’t notice can harm you: age-related differences in detecting concurrent visual, auditory, and tactile cues. Hum. Factors 60, 445–464 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720818759102
Baldwin, C.L.: Verbal collision avoidance messages during simulated driving: perceived urgency, alerting effectiveness and annoyance. Ergonomics 54, 328–337 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2011.558634
Edworthy, J., Stanton, N.: Human Factors in Auditory Warnings. Routledge, Abingdon (2019). https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429455742
Venkatesh, V., Davis, F.D.: Theoretical extension of the technology acceptance model: four longitudinal field studies. Manag. Sci. 46, 186–204 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.46.2.186.11926
Lee, S.C., Kim, Y.W., Ji, Y.G.: Effects of visual complexity of in-vehicle information display: age-related differences in visual search task in the driving context. Appl. Ergon. 81, 102888 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2019.102888
Nasreddine, Z.S., et al.: The Montreal cognitive assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 53, 695–699 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x
Lundqvist, L.M., Eriksson, L.: Age, cognitive load, and multimodal effects on driver response to directional warning. Appl. Ergon. 76, 147–154 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2019.01.002
Petermeijer, S., Bazilinskyy, P., Bengler, K., de Winter, J.: Take-over again: investigating multimodal and directional TORs to get the driver back into the loop. Appl. Ergon. 62, 204–215 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2017.02.023
Politis, I., Brewster, S., Pollick, F.: Evaluating multimodal driver displays of varying urgency. In: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications, AutomotiveUI 2013. pp. 92–99 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1145/2516540.2516543
Suied, C., Susini, P., McAdams, S.: Evaluating warning sound urgency with reaction times. J. Exp. Psychol. Appl. 14, 201–212 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.14.3.201
Meng, A., Siren, A.: Cognitive problems, self-rated changes in driving skills, driving-related discomfort and self-regulation of driving in old drivers. Accid. Anal. Prev. 49, 322–329 (2012)
Gwyther, H., Holland, C.: The effect of age, gender and attitudes on self-regulation in driving. Accid. Anal. Prev. 45, 19–28 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2011.11.022
Molnar, L., Eby, D., Zhang, L., Zanier, N., Louis, R., Kostyniuk, L.: Self-regulation of driving by older adults: a synthesis of the literature and framework. Aging (Albany. NY) 20, 227–235 (2015)
Rovira, E., McLaughlin, A.C., Pak, R., High, L.: Looking for age differences in self-driving vehicles: examining the effects of automation reliability, driving risk, and physical impairment on trust. Front. Psychol. 10 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00800
Abraham, H., Lee, C., Mehler, B., Reimer, B.: Autonomous Vehicles and Alternatives to Driving: Trust, Preferences, and Effects of Age Learning to Use Technology View project. In: Transportation Research Board 96th Annual Meeting (2017)
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of funds from the National Science Foundation (NSF grant #1755746; Program Manager: Dr. Ephraim Glinert).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this paper
Cite this paper
Huang, G., Pitts, B. (2020). Age-Related Differences in Takeover Request Modality Preferences and Attention Allocation During Semi-autonomous Driving. In: Gao, Q., Zhou, J. (eds) Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population. Technologies, Design and User Experience. HCII 2020. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 12207. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50252-2_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50252-2_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-50251-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-50252-2
eBook Packages: Computer ScienceComputer Science (R0)