Skip to main content
Log in

Age Differences in Perceived Positive Affect, Negative Affect, and Affect Balance in Middle and Old Age

  • Published:
Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Meta-analysis was used to synthesize findings from 125 studies on age differences in positive affect, negative affect, and affect balance. We found a small age-associated decline of positive affect and affect balance, and a small age-associated increase of negative affect. In addition, a quadratic age trend emerged, showing stronger declines of positive affect and stronger increases of negative affect in older subjects. Looking at changes of specific emotions, we found an age-associated decline of those positive and negative feelings that are associated with high arousal (e.g., feeling excited or upset), and an age-associated increase of positive and negative low-arousal emotions (e.g., feeling relaxed or depressed). Furthermore, older adults from the former communist Eastern European countries showed the strongest age-associated decline of positive affect and the strongest age-associated increase of negative affect. We conclude that age-associated losses in the oldest old and economic hardship make the optimization of subjective well-being increasingly difficult.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Allen, S.M., D. Ciambrone and L.C. Welch: 2000, ‘Stage of life course and social support as a mediator of mood state among persons with disability’, Journal of Aging and Health 12, pp. 318–341.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, F. and S. Whitney: 1976, Social Indicators of Well-Being: American's Perceptions of Life Quality (Plenum Press, NY).

    Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, T.Y., D.P. Gold, D. Andres and A. Schwartzman: 1992, ‘The role of psychosocial context, age, and intelligence in memory performance of older men’, Psychology and Aging 7, pp. 25–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arens, D.A.: 1982–83, ‘Widowhood and well-being: An examination of sex differences within a causal model’, International Journal of Aging and Human Development 15, pp. 27–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Argyle, M.: 1987, The Psychology of Happiness (Methuen and Co., London).

    Google Scholar 

  • Auslander, G.K. and H. Litwin: 1991, ‘Social networks, social support, and self-ratings of health among the elderly’, Journal of Aging and Health 3, pp. 493–510.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldassare, M., S. Rosenfeld and K. Rook: 1984, ‘The types of social relations predicting elderly well-being’, Research on Aging 6, pp. 549–559.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baltes, P.B. and M.M. Baltes: 1990, ‘Psychological perspectives on successful aging: The model of selective optimization with compensation’, in P.B. Baltes and M.M. Baltes (eds.), Successful Aging (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge), pp. 1–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barefoot, J.C., J.C. Beckham, T.L. Hanley, I.C. Siegler and I.M. Lipkus: 1993, ‘Age differences in hostility among middle-aged and older adults’, Psychology and Aging 8, pp. 3–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnes, K.A. and J.H. Patrick: 2000, ‘Effects of caregiving on older husbands’, Paper presented at the 53rd Annual Scientific Meeting of the Gerontological Society of America at Washington.

  • Beckham, J.C., E.J. Burker, B.L. Lytle, M.E. Feldman and M.J. Costakis: 1997, ‘Self-efficacy and adjustment in cancer patients:Apreliminary report’, Behavioral Medicine 23, pp. 138–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, B.: 1978, ‘Disaster impact and response: Overcoming the thousand natural shocks’, The Gerontologist 18, pp. 531–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, K.M. and K. Morgan: 1992, ‘Health, social functioning, and marital status: Stability and change among elderly recently widowed women’, International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 7, pp. 813–817.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkman, L.F., C.S. Berkman, S. Kasl and D.H. Freeman: 1986, ‘Depressive symptoms in relation to physical health and functioning in the elderly’, American Journal of Epidemiology 124, pp. 372–388.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J.M., M. Storandt and A. Coyne: 1984, ‘Age and sex differences in somatic complaints associated with depression’, Journal of Gerontology 39, pp. 456–467.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blazer, D., D.C. Hughes and N. Fowler: 1989, ‘Anxiety as an outcome symptom of depression in elderly and middle-aged adults’, International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 4, pp. 273–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bleiker, E.M., H.M. van der Ploeg, J. Mook and W.C. Kleijn: 1993, ‘Anxiety, anger, and depression in elderly women’, Psychological Reports 72, pp. 567–574.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolla-Wilson, K. and M.L. Bleecker: 1989, ‘Absence of depression in elderly adults’, Journal of Gerontology 44, pp. P53–P55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradburn, N.M.: 1969, The Structure of PsychologicalWell-Being (Adline, Chicago).

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandtstäadter, J. and W. Greve: 1994, ‘The aging self: Stabilizing and protective processes’, Developmental Review 14, pp. 52–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brief, A.P., A.H. Butcher, J.M. George and K.E. Link: 1993, ‘Integrating bottom-up and top-down theories of subjective well-being: The case of health’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64, pp. 646–653.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, F. and J. Veroff: 1986, ‘Dimensions of subjective mental health in American men and women’, in F. Andrews (ed.), Research on the Quality of Life (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bushman, B.J. and M.C.Wang: 1995, ‘A procedure of combining sample correlation coefficients and vote counts to obtain an estimate and a confidence interval for the population correlation coefficient’, Psychological Bulletin 117, pp. 530–546.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butcher, J.N., C.M. Aldwin, M.R. Levenson and Y.S. Ben-Porath: 1991, ‘Personality and aging: A study of the MMPI-2 among older men’, Psychology and Aging 6, pp. 361–370.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calsyn, R. and L. Roades: 1993, ‘Predicting perceived service need, service awareness, and service utilization’, Journal of Gerontological Social Work 21, pp. 59–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, P.: 1972, ‘The generation gap: Which generation is believed to have the most fun and happiness and how do generations rate themselves on desire for fun and happiness?’, The Gerontologist 12, pp. 120–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, P.: 1975, ‘Mood as an indicant of happiness: Age, sex, social class, and situational differences’, Journal of Gerontology 30, pp. 216–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, A.: 1980, The Sense of Well-Being in America (McGraw-Hill, NY).

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, A., P. Converse and W. Rodgers: 1976, The Quality of American Life (Sage, NY).

    Google Scholar 

  • Carstensen, L.L., J.M. Gottman and R.W. Levenson: 1995, ‘Emotional behavior in long-term marriage’, Psychology and Aging 10, pp. 140–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carstensen, L.L., D.M. Isaacowitz and S.T. Charles: 1999, ‘Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity’, American Psychologist 54, pp. 165–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carstensen, L.L., M. Pasupati, U. Mayr and J.R. Nesselroade: 2000, ‘Emotional experience in everyday life across the adult life span’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79, pp. 644–655.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cassileth, B.R., E.J. Lusk, L.L. Brown, P.A. Cross, W.P. Walsh, and S. Hurwitz: 1986, ‘Factors associated with psychological distress in cancer patients’, Medical and Pediatric Oncology 14, pp. 251–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavan, R.S., E.W. Burgess, R.J. Havighurst and H. Goldhamer: 1949, Personal Adjustment in Old Age (Science Research Associates, Chicago).

    Google Scholar 

  • Chatters, L.: 1988, ‘Subjective well-being evaluations among older black Americans’, Psychology and Aging 3, pp. 184–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, V.A., C.S. Aneshensel, R.R. Frerichs and T.M. Morgan: 1981, ‘Analysis of effects of sex and age in response to items on the CES-D scale’, Psychiatry Research 5, pp. 171–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colligan, R.C., D. Osborne, W.M. Swenson and K.P. Offord: 1983, The MMPI: A Contemporary Normative Study (Praeger, New York).

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, P.T. and R.R. McCrae: 1988, ‘Personality in adulthood: A six-year longitudinal study of self-reports and spouse ratings on the NEO Personality Inventory’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54, pp. 853–863.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, P.T., A.B. Zonderman, R.R. McCrae, J. Cornoni-Huntley, B.Z. Locke and H.E. Barbano: 1987, ‘Longitudinal analysis of psychological well-being in a national sample: Stability of mean levels’, Journal of Gerontology 42, pp. 50–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, B.D., F.A. Huppert and M.J. Whichelow: 1993, The Health and Lifestyle Survey: Seven Years On (Darthmouth Publishing, Aldershot).

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, A.D. and A. Hulligan: 1985, ‘Perception of life stress events by older and younger women’, Perceptual and Motor Skills 60, pp. 925–926.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, A.D., C. Saunders and T.J. Newton: 1987, ‘Age differences in the rating of life-stress events: Does contextual detail make a difference?’, British Journal of Clinical Psychology 26, pp. 299–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J.K. and T.W. Smith: 1995, General Social Surveys 1972–94: Cumulative File (International Consortium of Political and Social Research, Ann Arbor).

    Google Scholar 

  • Dean, L.R.: 1962, ‘Aging and the decline of affect’, Journal of Gerontology 17, pp. 440–446.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. and M.E. Suh: 1997, ‘Subjective well-being and age: An international analysis’, Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics 17, pp. 304–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. and R.A. Emmons: 1984, ‘The independence of positive and negative affect’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 47, pp. 1105–1117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., E. Sandvik and R.J. Larsen: 1985, ‘Age and sex differences for emotional intensity’, Developmental Psychology 21, pp. 542–546.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., M. Diener and C. Diener: 1995, ‘Factors predicting the subjective well-being of nations’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69, pp. 851–864.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eurobarometer Cumulative Data Files: 1975–85, Eurobarometer Surveys 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 19, 20, 24, 25 (Gesis, Kôoln).

    Google Scholar 

  • Feinson, M.C.: 1985, ‘Aging and mental health’, Research on Aging 7, pp. 155–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferring, D. and S.H. Filipp: 1997, ‘Subjektives Wohlbefinden im Alter: Strukturund Stabilitäatsanalysen’ [Subjective well-being in old age: Analysis of structure and stability], Psychologische Beiträage 39, pp. 236–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, M. and D.A. Chiriboga: 1985, ‘The interweaving of societal and personal change in adulthood’, in J.M. Munnichs, P. Mussen, E. Olbrich and P.G. Coleman (eds.), Life-Span and Change in a Gerontological Perspective (Academic Press, Orlando), pp. 177–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ford, G. and R. Taylor: 1983, ‘Risk groups and selective case findings in an elderly population’, Social Science and Medicine 17, pp. 647–655.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forsell, Y. and B. Winblad: 1998, ‘Feelings of anxiety and associated variables in a very elderly population’, International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 13, pp. 454–458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fry, P.S.: 2001, ‘The unique contribution of key existential factors to the prediction of psychological well-being of older adults following spousal loss’, The Gerontologist 41, pp. 69–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaitz, C.M. and J. Scott: 1972, ‘Age and measurement of mental health’, Journal of Health and Social Behavior 13, pp. 55–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallo, J.J., J.C. Anthony and B.O. Muthen: 1994. ‘Age differences in the symptoms of depression: A latent trait analysis’, Journal of Gerontology 49, pp. 251–P264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallo, J.J., P.V. Rabins and J.C. Anthony: 1999, ‘Sadness in older persons: 13-year follow-up of a community sample in Baltimore, Maryland’, Psychological Medicine 29, pp. 341–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ganz, P.A., J.J. Lee, M.S. Sim, M.L. Polinsky and C.A. Schag: 1992, ‘Exploring the influence of multiple variables on the relationship of age to quality of life in women with breast cancer’, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 45, pp. 473–485.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garrity, T.F.: 1973, ‘Social involvement and activeness as predictors of morale six months after first myocardial infarction’, Social Science and Medicine 7, pp. 199–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gatz, M. and M.L. Hurwitz: 1990, ‘Are old people more depressed? Cross-sectional data on Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale factors’, Psychology and Aging 5, pp. 284–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, S.J.: 1997, ‘The measurement of mood states in older adults’, Journal of Gerontology, Social Sciences 52B, pp. P167–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glatzer, W. and M. Volkert: 1980, ‘Lebensbedingungen und Lebensqualitäat alter Menschen’ [Living conditions and quality of life in older adults], Zeitschrift für Gerontologie 13, pp. 247–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gold, D., D. Andres and A. Schwartzman: 1988, ‘Self-perception of personality at midlife in elderly people: Continuity and change’, Experimental Aging Research 13, pp. 197–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graney, M.J.: 1973, ‘The Affect Balance Scale and old age’, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Sociological Society in Milwaukee, WI.

  • Gross, J., L. Carstensen, J. Tsai, C.G. Skorpen and A.Y. Hsu: 1997, ‘Emotion and aging: Experience, expression, and control’, Psychology and Aging 12, pp. 590–599.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurin, G., J. Veroff and S. Feld: 1960, Americans View their Mental Health (Basic Books, NY).

    Google Scholar 

  • Harry, J.: 1976, ‘Evolving sources of happiness for men over the life cycle: A structural analysis’, Journal of Marriage and the Family 38, pp. 289–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayslip, B., M. Beyerlein and J.A. Nichols: 1997, ‘Assessing anxiety about retirement: The case of academicians’, International Journal of Aging and Human Development 44, pp. 15–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedges, L.V.: 1994, ‘Fixed effect models’, in H. Cooper and L.V. Hedges (eds.), Handbook of Research Synthesis (Sage, NY), pp. 285–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, S., D.G. Byrne and P. Duncan-Jones: 1981, Neurosis and the Social Environment (Academic Press, Sydney).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hertzog, C., J. ValAstine, P.D. Usala, D.F. Hultsch and R. Dixon: 1990, ‘Measurement properties of the Center of Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) in older populations’, Psychological Assessment 1, 64–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herzog, A.R., W. Rodgers and J. Woodworth: 1982, Subjective Well-Being among Different Age Groups (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilleras, P.K., A.F. Jorm, A. Herlitz and B. Winblad: 1998, ‘Negative and positive affect among the very old’, Research on Aging 20, pp. 593–610.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinz, A., A. Hessel and E. Bräahler: in press, ‘Der Leipziger Stimmungsbogen: Einflüsse von Alter, Geschlecht und sozioäokonomischem Status auf die Befindlichkeit’ [The Leipzig Mood Questionnaire: Effects of age, gender, and socioeconomic status on mood states], Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie.

  • Hobbs, F.B. and B.L. Damon: 1996, 65+ in the United States (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC).

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooker, K., D.J. Monahan, S.R. Bowman, L.D. Frazier and K. Shifren: 1998, ‘Personality counts a lot: Predictors of mental and physical health of spouse caregivers in two disease groups’, Journal of Gerontology, Psychological Sciences 53B, pp. P73–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hraba, J., F. Lorenz and Z. Pechacova: 1997, ‘Age and depression in the post-Communist Czech Republic’, Research on Aging 19, pp. 442–461.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huerta, F. and R. Horton: 1978, ‘Coping behavior of elderly flood victims’, The Gerontologist 18, pp. 541–545.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inglehart, R.: 2000, World Values Surveys and European Values Surveys 1981– 1984, 1990–1993, and 1995–1997 [Computer file] (Institute for Social Research, Ann Arbor).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ishii-Kuntz, M: 1990, ‘Social interaction and psychological well-being: Comparison across stages of adulthood’, International Journal of Aging and Human Development 30, pp. 15–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, J., L. Chatters and H. Neighbors: 1986, ‘The subjective life quality of black Americans’, in F. Andrews (ed.), Research on the Quality of Life (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor), pp. 193–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, C.L. and B.M. Barer: 1993, ‘Coping and sense of control among the oldest old: An exploratory analysis’, Journal of Aging Studies 7, pp. 67–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jun, H.J. and N. Marks: 2000, ‘Age and gender differences in the influence of productive role activity on mental and physical health’, Paper presented at the 53rd Annual Scientific Meeting of the Gerontological Society of America at Washington, DC.

  • Jylha, M.: 2001, ‘Loneliness in old age: Cross-national and longitudinal analyses’, Paper presented at the 17th World Congress of the International Association of Gerontology at Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

  • Kato, H., N. Asukai, Y. Miyake and K. Minakawa: 1996, ‘Post-traumatic symptoms among younger and elderly evacuees in the early stages following the 1995 Hanshin-Awaji earthquake in Japan’, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 93, pp. 477–481.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kehn, D.J.: 1995, ‘Predictors of elderly happiness’, Activities, Adaptation and Aging 19, pp. 11–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kercher, K.: 1992, ‘Assessing subjective well-being in the old–old’, Research on Aging 14, pp. 131–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, K.A. and D.J. Müller: 2000, ‘Psychometric evaluation of the Affect Balance Scale among adults aged 50 to 90’, Paper presented at the 108th annual meeting of the American Psychological Association at Washington, DC.

  • Kiveläa, S.L. and K. Pahkala: 1988, ‘Symptoms of depression on old people in Finland’, Zeitschrift für Gerontologie 21, pp. 257–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramarow, E., H. Lentzner, R. Rooks, J. Weeks and S. Saydah: 1999, Health and Aging Chartbook 1999 (National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MA).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, B.J. and J.D. Lambert: 1999, ‘Caregiving as a life course transition among older husbands: A prospective study’, The Gerontologist 39, pp. 658–667.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kunzmann, U., T. Little and J. Smith: 2000, ‘Is age-related stability of subjective well-being a paradox? Cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence from the Berlin Aging Study’, Psychology and Aging 15, pp. 511–526.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, R.J., E. Diener and R.A. Emmons: 1985, ‘An evaluation of subjective wellbeing measures’, Social Indicators Research 17, pp. 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawton, M.P.: 1983, ‘The varieties of well-being’, Experimental Aging Research 9, pp. 65–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawton, M.P.: 1996, ‘Quality of life and affect in later life’, in C. Magai and S.H. McFadden (eds.), Handbook of Emotion, Adult Development, and Aging (Academic Press, San Diego), pp. 327–348.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawton, M.P., M.H. Kleban and E. DiCarlo: 1984, ‘Psychological well-being in the aged: Factorial and conceptual dimensions’, Research on Aging 6, pp. 67–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawton, M.P., M.H. Kleban, D. Rajagopal and J. Dean: 1992, ‘Dimensions of affective experience in three age groups’, Psychology and Aging 7, pp. 171–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawton, M.P., M.H. Kleban and J. Dean: 1993, ‘Affect and cross-sectional comparison of structure and prevalence’, Psychology and Aging 8, pp. 165–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, H., K.-D. Kim and D.C. Shin: 1982, ‘Perception of the quality of life in an industrializing country: The case of the Republic of Korea’, Social Indicators Research 10, pp. 297–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, R.W., L.L. Carstensen, W.V. Friesen and P. Ekman: 1991, ‘Emotion, physiology, and expression in old age’, Psychology and Aging 6, pp. 28–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin, J.S.: 1994, ‘Dimensions and correlates of general well-being among older adults’, Journal of Aging and Health 6, pp. 489–506.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, L.J. and S. Bluck: 1997, ‘Experienced and remembered emotional intensity in older adults’, Psychology and Aging 12, pp. 514–523.

    Google Scholar 

  • McAdams, D.P., E. de St. Aubin and R.L. Logan: 1993, ‘Generativity among young, midlife, and older adults’, Psychology and Aging 8, pp. 221–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • McAuley, E. and K.S. Courneya: 1992, ‘Self-efficacy with affective and exertion responses to exercise’, Journal of Applied Social Psychology 22, pp. 312–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • McConatha, J.T. and H.M. Huba: 1999, ‘Primary, secondary, and emotional control across adulthood’, Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality 18, pp. 164–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, R.J.: 1983, ‘Die Messung von Emotionen im Alter’ [Measurement of emotions in old age], in H. Läowe, U. Lehr and J. Birren (eds.), Psychologische Probleme des Erwachsenenalters (Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin), pp. 130–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNeill, K., M. Stones and A. Kozma: 1994, ‘Age differences in mood: Structure, mean level, and diurnal variation’, Canadian Journal on Aging 13, pp. 201–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magai, C.: 2001, ‘Emotions over the lifespan’, in J. Birren and K.W. Schaie (eds.), Handbook of Psychology and Aging, 5th edn. (Academic Press, San Diego), pp. 399–426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, G.H. and L.W. Thompson: 1977, ‘Psychophysiology of aging’, in J. Birren and K.W. Schaie (eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, 1st edn. (Van Nostrand Reinhold, NY), pp. 219–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, E.: 1954, ‘Some correlates of self-judgements of the aged’, Journal of Gerontology 9, pp. 324–327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masuda, M. and T.H. Holmes: 1978, ‘Life events: Perceptions and frequencies’, Psychosomatic Medicine 18, pp. 531–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayring, P.: 1991, Psychologie des Glücks [Psychology of Happiness] (Kohlhammer, Stuttgart, Germany).

    Google Scholar 

  • Meddin, J. and A. Vaux: 1988, ‘Subjective well-being among the rural elderly population’, International Journal of Aging and Human Development 27, pp. 193–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mirowski, J. and C.E. Clark: 1992, ‘Age and depression’, Journal of Health and Social Behavior 33, pp. 187–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moller, V.: 1988, ‘Quality of life in retirement:Acase study of Zulu return migrants’, Social Indicators Research 20, pp. 621–658.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moriwaki, S.: 1973, ‘Self-disclosure, significant others and psychological wellbeing in old age’, Journal of Health and Social Behavior 14, pp. 226–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mrozek, D.K. and C.M. Kolarz: 1998, ‘The effect of age on positive and negative affect: A developmental perspective on happiness’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75, pp. 1333–1349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nair, E.: 2000, ‘Health and aging: A perspective from the Far East’, Journal of Adult Development 7, pp. 121–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Center for Health Statistics: 1998, Second supplement on aging, 1994, version 2, Hyattsville, MA.

  • Ohta, Y., N. Kawasaki, K. Araki, M. Mine and S. Honda: 1995, ‘The factor structure of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-30) in Japanese middleaged and elderly resident’, International Journal of Social Psychiatry 41, pp. 268–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Okma, P. and R. Veenhoven: 1999, ‘Is langer leven nog wel leuk? Levensvoldoening van hoog-bejaarden in 8 EU-landen’ [Is a long life really fun? Life-satisfaction of the very old in 8 EC countries], Sociale Wetenschappen 42, pp. 38–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oxman, T.E., J.E. Barrett, J. Barrett and P. Gerber: 1990, ‘Symptomatology of late-life minor depression among primary care patients’, Psychosomatics 31, pp. 174–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinquart, M.: 1998, Das Selbstkonzept im Seniorenalter [Self-Concept in Old Age] (Beltz, Weinheim, Germany).

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinquart, M. and S. Säorensen: 2000, ‘Planning ahead or avoidance – How older persons cope with the risk to need future care’, Paper presented at the 5th congress of the German Society for Gerontology and Geriatrics in Nuremberg.

  • Qiao, X. and C. Suchindran: 2001, ‘Health and happiness of the elderly in China’, Paper presented at the 17th. World Congress of the International Association of Gerontology, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

  • Ranzijn, R. and M. Luszcz: 2000, ‘Measurement of subjective quality of life’, International Journal of Aging and Human Development 50, pp. 263–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapp, S.R. and D. Chao: 1999, ‘Appraisals of role strain and gain: Effects on psychological well-being of caregivers of demented patients’, Paper presented at the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Gerontological Society of America, San Francisco, CA.

  • Reynolds, J.S.: 2000, ‘Older women and breast cancer: Support, social satisfaction, and psychosocial outcomes’, Paper presented at the 53rd Annual Scientific Meeting of the Gerontological Society of America, Washington, DC.

  • Rosch, P.J.: 1996, ‘The ravaging of Russia: A study in psychosocial stress’, Stress Medicine 12, pp. 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R.: 1991, Meta-Analytic Procedures for Social Research (Sage, Beverly Hills).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R.: 1994, ‘Parametric measures of effect size’, in H. Cooper and L.V. Hedges (eds.), Handbook of Research Synthesis (Russell Sage, NY), pp. 231–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, J.A.: 1980, ‘A circumplex model of affect’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39, pp. 1161–1178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C.: 1989, ‘Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57, pp. 1069–1081.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaub, R.T. and M. Linden: 2000, ‘Anxiety and anxiety disorders in the old and very old – Results from the Berlin Aging Study (BASE)’, Comprehensive Psychiatry 41 (Suppl. 1), pp. 48–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schieman, S.: 1999, ‘Age and anger’, Journal of Health and Social Behavior 40, pp. 273–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schofield, H.L., B. Murphy, J. Nankervis, B. Singh, H.E. Herrman and S. Bloch: 1997, ‘Family carers: Women and men, adult offspring, partners, and parents’, Journal of Family Studies 3, pp. 149–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulte, D.: 1996, Altenhilfe in Europa [Support for Older Adults in Europe] (Kohlhammer, Stuttgart, Germany).

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulz, R.: 1985, ‘Emotion and affect’, in J.E. Birren and K.W. Schaie (eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging, 2nd edn. (Van Nostrand Reinhold, NY), pp. 531–543.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulz, R. and S. Decker: 1985, ‘Long-term adjustment to physical disability: The role of social support, perceived control, and self-blame’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 48, pp. 1162–1172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwab, J.J., C.E. Holzer and G.J.Warheit: 1973, ‘Depressive symptomatology and age’, Psychosomatics 14, pp. 135–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzer, C. and B. Seipp: 1990, ‘Emotions in the elderly: An empirical study and a meta-analysis’, Working Paper, Department of Educational Research and Counseling, University of Düsseldorf.

  • Shifren, K., K. Hooker, P.Wood and J.R. Nesselroade: 1997, ‘Structure and variation of mood in individuals with Parkinson's disease: A dynamic factor analysis’, Psychology and Aging 12, pp. 328–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shmotkin, D.: 1990, ‘Subjective well-being as a function of age and gender: Multivariate look for differentiated trends’, Social Indicators Research 23, pp. 201–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siara, C.S.: 1980, Komponenten der Wohlfahrt: Materialien zu Lebensbedingungen und Lebensqualitäat in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland [Aspects of Welfare: Materials about Living Conditions and Quality of Life in Germany] (Campus, Frankfurt/Main, Germany).

    Google Scholar 

  • Singer, E.: 1974, ‘Premature social aging: The social-psychological consequences of a chronic illness’, Social Science and Medicine 8, pp. 143–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J.: 2001, ‘Health: An important predictor of decline in well-being in very old age’, Paper presented at the 17thWorld Congress of the International Association of Gerontology, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

  • Smith, S., C.C. Colenda and M.E. Espeland: 1994, ‘Factors determining the level of anxiety state in geriatric primary care patients in a community dwelling’, Psychosomatics 35, pp. 50–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snow, R. and L. Crapo: 1982, ‘Emotional bondedness, subjective well-being, and health in the elderly medical patients’, Journal of Gerontology 37, pp. 609–615.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spiro, A. and R. Boss´e: 2000, ‘Relations between health-related quality of life and well-being: The gerontologist's new clothes?’, International Journal of Aging and Human Development 50, pp. 297–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stacey, C.A. and M. Gatz: 1991, ‘Cross-sectional age differences and longitudinal change on the Bradburn Affect Balance Scale’, Journal of Gerontology 46, pp. P76–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stutsman, H., M.A. Okun and W.A. Stock: 1984–85, ‘The influence of self-ascribed handicapped status on the positive affect of the elderly’, International Journal of Aging and Human Development 20, pp. 283–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ticehurst, S., R.A.Webster,V.J. Carr and T.J. Lewin: 1996, ‘The psychosocial impact of an earthquake on the elderly’, International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 11, pp. 943–951.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tismer, K.-G., U. Lange, N. Erlemeier and J. Tismer-Puschner: 1976, Psychosoziale Aspekte der Situation äalterer Menschen [Psychosocial Aspects of the Situation of Older Adults] (Kohlhammer, Stuttgart, Germany).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tran, T.: 1992, ‘Subjective health and subjective well-being among the elderly: Measurement issues’, Journal of Social Service Research 16, pp. 133–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Troll, L.E. and J. Stapley: 1985, ‘Elders and the extended family system: Health, family, salience, and affect’, in J.M. Munnichs, P. Mussen, E. Olbrich and P.G. Coleman (eds.), Life-Span and Change in a Gerontological Perspective (Academic Press, Orlando), pp. 211–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uhlenberg, P. and S. Miner: 1996, ‘Life course and aging: A cohort perspective’, in R.H. Binstock and L.K. George (eds.), Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences, 4th edn. (Academic Press, San Diego), pp. 208–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Veenhoven, R.: 2000, World Database on Happiness (Rotterdam, available under www/eur.nl/fsw/research/happiness).

  • Vega Vega, J., B.B. Martinez and P.F. Placida-Barcena: 2001, ‘Determinants of self-perception in the elderly’, Paper presented at the 17th World Congress of the International Association of Gerontology, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

  • Veroff, J., E. Douvan and R. Kulka: 1981, Americans View their Mental Health (Basic Books, NY).

    Google Scholar 

  • Vetter, N.J., D.A. Jones and C.R.Victor: 1982, ‘The importance of mental disabilities for the use of services by the elderly’, Journal of Psychosomatic Research 26, pp. 607–612.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warr, P. and R. Payne: 1982, ‘Experiences of strain and pleasure among British adults’, Social Science and Medicine 16, pp. 1691–1697.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D. and A. Tellegen: 1985, ‘Toward a consensual structure of mood’, Psychological Bulletin 98, pp. 219–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., L.A. Clark and A. Tellegen: 1988, ‘Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54, pp. 1063–1070.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, B. and S. Graham: 1989, ‘Understanding the motivational role of affect: Life-span research from an attributional perspective’, Cognition and Emotion 3, pp. 401–419.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westbrook, M.T. and L.L.Viney: 1983, ‘Age and sex differences in patients' reaction to illness’, Journal of Health and Social Behavior 24, pp. 313–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheterell, J.L., M. Gatz and N.L. Pedersen: 2001, ‘Alongitudinal analysis of anxiety and depressive symptoms’, Psychology and Aging 16, pp. 187–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitten, P. and E. Kailis: 1999, ‘DieWohnverhäaltnisse äalterer Menschen in der E.U.’ [Housing conditions of older adults living in the E.U.], Eurostat 14, pp. 1–8.

  • Winter, L., M.P. Lawton, R.J. Casten and R.L. Sando: 2000, ‘The relationship between external events and affect states in older people’, International Journal of Aging and Human Development 50, pp. 85–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodruff-Pak, D. and M. Papka: 1999, ‘Theories of neuropsychology and aging’, in V.L. Bengtson and K.W. Schaie (eds.), Handbook of Theories of Aging (Springer, New York), pp. 113–132.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Martin Pinquart.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Pinquart, M. Age Differences in Perceived Positive Affect, Negative Affect, and Affect Balance in Middle and Old Age. Journal of Happiness Studies 2, 375–405 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013938001116

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013938001116

Navigation