Elsevier

Aggression and Violent Behavior

Volume 8, Issue 5, September–October 2003, Pages 487-511
Aggression and Violent Behavior

Disorganized attachment as a diathesis for sexual deviance: Developmental experience and the motivation for sexual offending

https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-1789(02)00076-9Get rights and content

Abstract

Recently, researchers and theorists have begun to focus attention on the early attachments and developmental contexts of sexual offenders. Attachment theory provides a unique conceptual perspective from which to derive possible motivation for some sexual offense behavior, as well as explore the inter- and intrapersonal contexts that contribute to deviant sexual behavior. The quality of attachments in childhood and adolescence is well known to impact development of critical self-regulatory functions such as emotional definition and control, cognitive self-definition, and interpersonal expectation. In this paper, in an effort to contribute to an extant etiological model of sexual offending [Trauma, Violence, Abus 1 (2000) 250], attachment disorganization is identified as a marker for severe attachment insecurity, a specific diathesis in the etiology of sexual offending. We hypothesize that individuals with disorganized attachment experiences do not adequately develop and/or fail to adequately internalize self-regulatory skills, and thus may be more likely to rely on externally based means of self-regulation. In particular, sexual offending is identified as one of several possible strategies of externally based intra- and interpersonal control, emerging primarily in adolescence in response to several pressures: a frightening experience of the self, poor interpersonal relationships, childhood experience with adult sexuality, and the biological and social push of puberty.

Introduction

There are many factors which contribute to the development and expression of human sexuality and to the form of sexual behavior pursued by any individual, with individuals who commit sexual offenses being no exception. Genetic contributions to factors such as aggressiveness and impulsiveness Coccaro et al., 1993, New et al., 2002, physiological differences such as sex drive, neurotransmitter function, and hormone levels Baumeister et al., 2001, Coccaro et al., 2000, Ellis, 1991, Lane & Cherek, 2000, the use and abuse of alcohol and other substances Abbey et al., 2001, Brecklin & Ullman, 2002, Peugh & Belenko, 2001, sociocultural demands Millburn et al., 2000, Mosher & Tomkins, 1988, St. Lawrence & Joyner, 1991, in addition to interpersonal and relational factors Flewelling & Bauman, 1990, Marshall & Barbaree, 1990, Marshall & Marshall, 2000, likely all play a role in the development of deviant sexual behavior. Many theories and models exist which attempt to account for sexual offense behavior and it has been observed that often these models focus on one particular aspect of the sexual offender and fail to integrate multiple contributing factors (Hudson & Ward, 1997).

Recently, Marshall and Marshall (2000) have proposed a comprehensive etiological model of sexual offending which seeks to include both biological and social components, including attachment processes. The initial stressors in the life of a high risk child include such events as poor parent/child attachment bonds, low self-esteem, poor quality of relationships, inadequate emotional coping skills, and prior sexual abuse. These problems are posited to lead to a primary reliance on sexualized coping, including masturbation and sexual acts with others. Sexualized coping behaviors provide a way to “escape… from difficult issues” (p. 255) inherent to the family process and early development (Marshall & Marshall, 2000). According to this model maintenance of sexual offending depends on a behavioral conditioning process which encourages increased reliance on sexualized coping, thus, predisposing individuals toward sexual offending and strengthening likelihood of a repetition of the sexual offense once it has been committed. Particularly important is the early onset and frequent practice of masturbation (Cortoni & Marshall, 2001), specifically masturbation to fantasies involving violence and control, a phenomenon well documented in studies of sexual offenders Butz & Spaccarelli, 1999, Cortoni & Marshall, 2001, Wieckowski et al., 1998. Frequent pairing of sexual arousal through masturbation with inappropriate fantasy leads to the increased likelihood of committing a sexual offense (Johnson & Knight, 2000). This conditioning process, combined with a disinhibiting influence, such as anger, alcohol, or drugs, and the access to a victim ultimately contribute to the sexual offense.

We find much of their model compelling and well articulated. However, there is a critical missing link in the proposed conceptual chain: How do the stressors which potentiate sexualized coping mechanisms lead to the adoption of sexually violent behaviors with serious negative social ramifications and how do these serious behaviors come to be, or need to be used as self-regulatory strategies? In our opinion, controlling fantasies, poor self-esteem, and poor relationship skills are not necessarily sufficient to motivate commission of initial sexual offenses, particularly when those offenses are committed in childhood or adolescence. For example, many adolescents report low self-esteem but do not engage in sexual violence. Rather, there must be a powerful internally organized psychological context, which potentiates the likelihood of engaging in sexually controlling/abusive behavior.

Following Hudson and Ward (1997), we do not seek to propose a new theory or model but to fill in an explanatory gap of an existing model of sexual offending with information available from an alternate investigative literature. Our contribution is to focus on the previously unspecified difficult relational issues from which the sexual offender seeks to escape in an effort to fill in the early developmental stages of the Marshall and Marshall (2000) model with available empirical data and theory. We argue that a stronger model results when the causal hypothesis can be described with necessary and sufficient links, particularly to developmental processes, which provide a comprehensive theoretical account. To that end, we focus on the role of the recently described phenomena of disorganized and delayed attachment processes, constructs which have not been previously applied to investigations of adult or adolescent sexual offending, as factors in the etiology of some sexual offense behavior. Additionally, we use this theoretical approach to address three core areas: (1) how disorganized attachment creates a highly aversive intrapersonal experience, thus, providing sufficient motivation to engage in extreme acts against others; (2) how the quality of life of sexual offenders and individuals with attachment disruptions are similar; and (3) how sexual behavior comes to be an important self-regulatory strategy for some individuals.

Section snippets

Disorganization, controlling attachment, and motivation for sex offending

As children and adolescents, adult sexual offenders often report family environments characterized by violence, substance abuse, and interpersonal turmoil Becker, 1998, Langevin et al., 1989, Smith, 1988, Spaccarelli et al., 1997, Tingle et al., 1986, Wieckowski et al., 1998, and are themselves, sometimes victims of physical and sexual abuse Dhaliwal et al., 1996, Finkelhor, 1984, Jonson-Reid & Way, 2001, Langevin et al., 1989, Seghorn et al., 1987, Stevenson & Gajarsky, 1991, Weeks & Widom,

Quality of life

The purpose of this section is to examine the mostly parallel literatures describing attachment disruption and the life experiences of sexual offenders. By juxtaposing the information known to describe attachment disruptions and the information known to describe life experiences of sexual offenders we intend to demonstrate basic commonalities. Specifically, research indicates problems with interpersonal relationships, emotional regulation, self-definition, and awareness of others for both

Why sex?

In much of the theory and research regarding sexual offenders, great emphasis is placed on the sexual nature of the crimes, and rightly so as sexual behavior is a primary reinforcing activity. However, when the sexual nature of the action is stressed exclusively, much information as to the full motivation for these offenses is lost. Evidence suggests that general maltreatment in childhood is related to a range of serious delinquent and adult criminal activities (Jonson-Reid & Way, 2001), which

Concluding remarks

A comprehensive theory of sexual offending must account for several well validated observations of adult and adolescent offenders: (1) offenders report family environments characterized by disruption, violence, and/or substance abuse; (2) offenders are often sexually or physically abused as children; and (3) offenders report an early reliance on sexualized coping processes. These observations implicate the necessity of investigating the familial and developmental contexts from which offenders

References (154)

  • M.D.S. Ainsworth et al.

    An ethological approach to personality development

    American Psychologist

    (1991)
  • J.P. Allen et al.

    Attachment theory as a framework for understanding sequelae of severe adolescent psychopathology: an 11-year follow-up study

    Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

    (1996)
  • H.E. Barbaree

    Evaluating treatment efficacy with sexual offenders: the insensitivity of recidivism studies to treatment effects

    Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment

    (1997)
  • H.E. Barbaree et al.

    Sexual assault in society: the role of the juvenile offender

  • K. Bartholomew

    Assessment of individual differences in adult attachment

    Psychological Inquiry

    (1994)
  • K. Bartholomew et al.

    Attachment styles among young adults: a test of a four-category model

    Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

    (1991)
  • B.A. Bass et al.

    Family perception of rapists and pedophiles

    Psychological Reports

    (1992)
  • R.F. Baumeister et al.

    Is there a gender difference in strength of sex drive? Theoretical views, conceptual distinctions, and a review of relevant evidence

    Personality and Social Psychology Review

    (2001)
  • E.D. Beaver et al.

    Priming macho attitudes and emotions

    Journal of Interpersonal Violence

    (1992)
  • J.V. Becker

    What we know about the characteristics and treatment of adolescents who have committed sexual offenses

    Child Maltreatment

    (1998)
  • J.V. Becker et al.

    Juveniles who commit sexual offenses: a critical review of research

  • J. Beinstein-Miller et al.

    Attachment memories, models and information processing

    Journal of Social and Personal Relationships

    (1999)
  • D. Benoit et al.

    Stability and transmission of attachment across three generations

    Child Development

    (1994)
  • B.L. Bonner et al.

    Assessment of adolescent sex offenders

    Child Maltreatment: A Journal of the American Society on the Abuse of Children

    (1998)
  • J. Bowlby

    Attachment and loss: Volume 1. Attachment

    (1969)
  • J. Bowlby

    Attachment and loss: Volume 2. Separation: anxiety and anger

    (1973)
  • J. Bowlby

    Attachment and loss: Volume 3. Separation: loss, sadness, and depression

    (1980)
  • L.T. Brecklin et al.

    The roles of victim and offender alcohol use in sexual assaults: results from the National Violence Against Women Survey

    Journal of Studies on Alcohol

    (2002)
  • J. Briere

    The long term correlates of childhood sexual victimization

    Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

    (1988)
  • T.L. Brown et al.

    Trauma exposure, protective factors and mental health functioning of substance-abusing and dependent juvenile offenders

    Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

    (1999)
  • K.M. Bumby et al.

    Intimacy deficits, fear of intimacy, and loneliness among sexual offenders

    Criminal Justice and Behavior

    (1997)
  • Burk, L. R., & Burkhart, B. R. (2002). The Auburn Scale: a new measure of hypermasculinity. Manuscript in preparation,...
  • D.L. Burton

    Were adolescent sexual offenders children with sexual behavior problems?

    Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment

    (2000)
  • B.J. Bushman et al.

    Do people aggress to improve their mood? Catharsis beliefs, affect regulation opportunity, and aggressive responding

    Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

    (2001)
  • C. Butz et al.

    Use of physical force as an offense characteristic in subtyping juvenile sexual offenders

    Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment

    (1999)
  • K. Chantry et al.

    MCMI typologies of criminal sexual offenders

    Sexual Addiction and Compulsivity

    (1994)
  • Coccaro, E. F., Kavoussi, R. J., & McNamee, B. (2000). Central neurotransmitter function in criminal aggression. In D....
  • Cole, J. A. (1988). Predictors of sexually coercive and aggressive behavior in college males (Doctoral dissertation,...
  • F. Cortoni et al.

    Sex as a coping strategy and its relationship to juvenile sexual history and intimacy in sexual offenders

    Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment

    (2001)
  • G. Creasy et al.

    Conflict management with friends and romantic partners: the role of attachment and negative mood regulation expectancies

    Journal of Youth and Adolescence

    (1999)
  • S.M. Crimmins et al.

    Trauma, drugs, and violence among juvenile offenders

    Journal of Psychoactive Drugs

    (2000)
  • R. Dembo et al.

    Testing a model of the influence of family problem factors on high-risk youths' troubled behavior: a three wave longitudinal study

    Journal of Psychoactive Drugs

    (2000)
  • D.G. Dutton

    The abusive personality: violence and control in intimate relationships

    (1998)
  • D.M. Dwyer

    Treatment outcome study: seventeen years after sexual offender treatment

    Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment

    (1997)
  • L. Ellis

    A synthesized (biosocial) theory of rape

    Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

    (1991)
  • J. Fagan et al.

    Explanations of sexual assault among violent delinquents

    Journal of Adolescent Research

    (1988)
  • Y.M. Fernandez et al.

    The Child Molester Empathy Measure: description and examination of its reliability and validity

    Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment

    (1999)
  • R.L. Flewelling et al.

    Family structure as a predictor of initial substance use and sexual intercourse in early adolescence

    Journal of Marriage and the Family

    (1990)
  • D. Finkelhor

    Child sexual abuse

    (1984)
  • P. Fonagy et al.

    The relation of attachment status, psychiatric classification, and response to psychotherapy

    Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

    (1996)
  • Cited by (67)

    • Comparing the onset of child sexual abuse perpetration from adolescence into adulthood: Are there unique risks, and what does this mean for prevention?

      2020, Child Abuse and Neglect
      Citation Excerpt :

      Significant life stressors (e.g. marital, living conditions, unemployment) and broken social bonds have also been identified as precipitators of adulthood-onset offending (Harris, 2011; Sampson & Laub, 1990; Sapouna, 2015; Zara & Farrington, 2010). These factors have been known to coalesce with other personal and social vulnerabilities, such as attachment insecurity, intimacy deficits, and emotion regulation problems, increasing the risk for engagement in sexually abusive behavior at this stage of life (e.g. Burk & Burkhart, 2003; Marshall & Marshall, 2010; McKillop, Smallbone, Wortley, & Andjic, 2012; Ward & Beech, 2006). Although research has been conducted separately on offending cohorts to understand risks associated with adolescent sexual offending (e.g., Carpentier, Leclerc, & Proulx, 2011; Vizard, 2006, 2007; 2013; Vizard, Hickey, & McCrory, 2007; Seto & Lalumière, 2010) and adult sexual offending (e.g., Marshall & Marshall, 2010; Smallbone & Wortley, 2001; Ward & Beech, 2006), few studies (e.g., Lussier et al., 2015; McKillop, Brown, Smallbone, & Pritchard, 2015, 2018; Kaufman et al., 1996; Miranda & Corcoran, 2000) have directly compared these two cohorts.

    • Interventions for sex offenders who target child victims

      2020, Child Sexual Abuse: Forensic Issues in Evidence, Impact, and Management
    • Affect regulation as a factor in sex offenders

      2017, Aggression and Violent Behavior
      Citation Excerpt :

      The onset can be enabled because individuals may try to suppress their own negative attachment experiences through substance misuse or dissociation, which have been seen as precursors to offense related activities (Craissati, McClurg, & Browne, 2002). Consistent with these ideas, Burk and Burkhart (2003) hypothesize that individuals with poor or disorganized attachment may be more likely to rely on externally based means of self-regulation. Specific sexual experiences, such as previous sexual victimization, witnessing sexual violence, viewing pornography combined with severely disrupted attachment and biological facts such as sex drive and the reinforcing power of orgasm, allow for the use of sexual offense behavior as a self-regulatory mechanism.

    • Early parenting styles and sexual offending behavior: A comparative study

      2016, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry
    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text