Relaxation therapy for insomnia: nighttime and day time effects
Introduction
People with insomnia (PWI) complain not only of poor sleep but impaired day time functioning as well. Insomnia can negatively impact physical, emotional, cognitive, occupational, and social spheres of one's life (Morin, 1993). Compared to people without insomnia, PWI report more physical and mental health problems, greater usage of medical services, and more frequent hospitalizations (Bixler et al., 1979, Ford and Kamerow, 1989, Kales et al., 1984, Mellinger et al., 1985). They are lonelier, less satisfied with life, less active in work and social activities, and more likely to be depressed than people without insomnia (Ford and Kamerow, 1989, Kales et al., 1984, Marchini et al., 1983). Work performance of PWI may be negatively impacted by reduced productivity and higher absenteeism rates. One study found that self-described ‘poor sleepers’ in a Naval school performed less effectively, received fewer career promotions, and were more likely to drop out than good sleepers (Johnson & Spinweber, 1983).
Although the data on performance variables is inconsistent, PWI may have specific deficits in psychomotor and/or cognitive functioning (Mendelson et al., 1984, Mendelson et al., 1984, Schneider-Helmert, 1987, Sugarman et al., 1985). For example, Mendelson et al. (1984) found PWI to have a specific impairment in semantic memory, which may be subjectively experienced as an inability to think clearly. PWI also commonly complain of day time sleepiness, although objective tests of sleepiness such as multiple sleep latency tests (MSLT) and pupillometry have failed to corroborate this complaint (Chambers and Keller, 1993, Lichstein et al., 1992, Seidel et al., 1984).
Although PWI perceive insomnia to adversely affect a broad spectrum of their lives, the impact of insomnia on day time functioning has received little attention in the clinical outcome literature. Treatments for insomnia typically address the subjective complaint of poor sleep, assuming that when sleep is improved, improvements in day time functioning will follow. However, an alternative view shifts the focus to day time functioning for the purpose of estimating the clinical significance of insomnia. The extent to which one's life is affected by poor sleep can be estimated by the assessment of day time functioning. The results of such assessment may bear heavily on determining whether a sleep intervention is needed and the nature of that intervention.
College students may be particularly susceptible to detrimental day time effects of insomnia. Academic pressures and poor sleep habits (e.g. excessive caffeine or alcohol use, variable bedtimes, day time napping) can instigate or aggravate insomnia. Insomnia may be more prevalent in college students than other young adults, with one study reporting insomnia in 17% of randomly selected psychology undergraduates (Lichstein, 1983). College students also may be experiencing increasingly unsatisfying sleep in general. One research group found that sleep complaints of college students rose over a ten year period, suggesting that both the quality and quantity of self-reported sleep is decreasing in this population (Hicks et al., 1978, Hicks et al., 1978.
The first objective of the present study was to explore day time functioning differences between college students with insomnia (SWI) and students not complaining of insomnia (SNI). Students were compared on self-reported sleep variables and five day time functioning questionnaires: Insomnia Impact Scale (IIS), Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes About Sleep Scale (DBAS), Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS), Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS), and Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ). Because these questionnaires typically have not been used in young adults with insomnia, they provided new information about the effects of insomnia in this population.
A second objective of the present study was to investigate changes in day time functioning after treatment for insomnia. One-half of SWI were randomly assigned to receive progressive relaxation therapy (PR). Posttreatment measures of sleep and day time functioning variables in treated SWI were compared with untreated SWI and SNI. We hypothesized that treated SWI would demonstrate improvement in sleep variables and general day time functioning over untreated SWI.
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Participants
The sample consisted of 118 college students (57 SWI, 61 SNI). Twenty-eight SWI were randomly assigned to the treatment group. Participants ranged in age from 17 to 44 years old, with an average of 21.2 years (S.D.=5.2; treated SWI M=21.0 years, S.D.=5.3; untreated SWI M=20.2 years, S.D.=4.4; SNI M=21.7 years, S.D.=5.6). Of the total sample, 72% were female (treated SWI, 68% female; untreated SWI, 69% female; SNI, 75% female). SWI reported an average length of sleep difficulty of 3.6 years
Day time functioning and sleep differences at baseline
Table 1 presents means and standard deviations for SWI and SNI on day time functioning and sleep variables at baseline. The sleep variables were averaged over 2 weeks. One SWI was missing PSWQ data. The average value on the PSWQ for this group was substituted for this student's score. Separate multivariate analysis of variances (MANOVAs) were performed on baseline scores from the five day time functioning questionnaires and the sleep variables. This procedure was chosen to protect against type
Discussion
SWI perceive impaired day time functioning in comparison to SNI. SWI reported greater impact of insomnia, more dysfunctional beliefs and attitudes about sleep, and higher levels of day time sleepiness, fatigue and worry. Day time impairment was complemented by decrements in self-reported sleep variables (SOL, WASO, SE, QUAL). Treated students did demonstrate improvement in sleep variables at posttreatment, although not to the level of SNI. They spent less time awake during the night, had better
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Department of Psychology's Center for Applied Psychological Research, part of the State of Tennessee's Center of Excellence Grant program.
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