Abstract
This article presents a theoretical argument to explain the way in which unemployed people react to and cope with threats to their identities that derive from perceptions ofstigma and low self-worth. It is argued here that strategies used by unemployed people to cope with such threats are influenced by whether the individuals categorize themselves as “unemployed” or adopt some other categorization (e.g., housewife, retired coal-miner). It is also proposed that the concept of self-categorization can be framed within Folkman and Lazarus’s (1980, 1985) coping model of distress in order to provide a more general framework for understanding these issues. The study reviews literature about stigma and coping with threatened identities with reference to these integrated frameworks, and concludes with a general model for predicting the way in which unemployed people self-categorize and cope with stigma and low self-esteem. This takes into account the role played by situational and individual factors, and suggests that individuals recategorize themselves in order to cope better during different phases of their unemployment.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ashton, D. N., & Maguire, M. J. (1986).Young adults in the labour market (Research Paper No. 55). London: Department of Employment.
Atkinson, A., & Micklewright, J. (1989). Turning the screw: Benefits for the unemployed, 1978–88. In A. Dilnot & J. Walker (Eds.),The economics of social security. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
Baarda, D. B., Frowijn, A. P., de-Goede, M. P., & Postma, M. E. (1983). Academic achievements of children with unemployed fathers: A preliminary study.Pedagogische Studien, 60 (12), 473–484.
Bakke, E. W. (1940).Citizens without work: A study of the effects of unemployment upon the workers’ social relations and practices. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Banks, M., & Ullah, P. (1987). Self-definition and psychological group formation in an ethnic minority.British Journal of Social Psychology, 26 (1), 17–23.
Beales, H. L., & Lambert, R. S. (1934).Memoirs of the unemployed. Wakefield: E. P. Publishing.
Beloff, H. (1986). Introduction: Making ourselves. In H. Beloff (Ed.),Getting into life. London: Methuen.
Beit-Hallahmi, B. (1979). Personal and social components of the Protestant ethic.Journal of Social Psychology, 109, 263267.
Bolle-De-Balle, M. (1987). The desire to work and experience of unemployment: Crisis, detachment, and paradoxes.Revue Suisse de Sociologie, 13 (1), 63–83.
Borgen, W. A., Hatch, W. E., & Amundson, N. E. (1990). The experience of unemployment for university graduates: An exploratory study.Journal of Employment Counseling, 27 (3), 104–112.
Bould, S. (1980). Unemployment as a factor in early retirement decisions.American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 89 (2), 123–136.
Brake, M. (1980).The sociology of youth culture and youth subcultures: Sex and drugs and rock ‘n’ roll. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Breakwell, G. M. (1985). Abusing the unemployed: An invisible injustice.Journal of Moral Education, 14 (1), 56–62.
Breakwell, G. M. (1986a). Political and attibutional responses to the young short-term unemployed. Political Psychology, 7(3): 575–586.
Breakwell, G. M. (1986b).Coping with threatened identities. London: Methuen.
Breakwell, G. M., Collie, A., Harrison, B., & Propper, C. (1984). Attitudes towards the unemployed: Effects of threatened identity.British Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 87–88.
Brenner, S. O., & Starrin, B. (1988). Unemployment and health in Sweden: Public issues and private troubles.Journal of Social Issues, 44 (4), 125–140.
Brinkman, C. (1981). Finanzielle und psycho-soziale Belastungen wahrend der Arbeitslosigkeit. In A. Wacker (Ed.),Vom Schockzum Fatalizmus? Frankfurt: Campus Verlag.
Bruner, J. S. (1957). On perceptual readiness.Psychological Review, 64, 123–152.
Bunker, N. & Dewsbury, C. (1983). Unemployment behind closed doors: Staying in and staying invisible.Journal of Community Education, 2, 4 (Working Paper).
Cain, M. T., Khanam, S. R., & Nahar, S. (1979). Class, patriarchy and women’s work in Bangladesh.Population and Development Review, 5 (3), 405–438.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1994). Situational coping and coping dispositions in a stressful transaction.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 184–195.
Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, (2) 267–283.
Chassin, L., & Stager, S. F. (1984). Determinants of self-esteem among incarcerated delinquents.Social Psychology Quarterly, 47, 382–390.
Clark, A. W., & Clissold, M. P. (1982). Correlates of adaption among unemployed and employed young men.Psychological Reports, 50, 887–893.
Cobb, S. & Kasl, S. V. (1977). Termination: The consequences of job loss. Cincinnati, OH: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
Coffield, F. Borrill, C., & Marshall, S. (1986). “Shit jobs, govy schemes or the dole”: Occupational choice for young adults in the north-east of England. In H. Berloff (Ed.),Getting into life. London: Methuen.
Cohen, F., & Lazarus, R. S. (1973). Active coping process, coping dispositions and recovery from surgery.Psychosomatic Medicine, 35, 375–389.
Cragg, A., & Dawson, T. (1984).Unemployed women: A study of attitudes and experiences (Research Paper No.47). London: Department of Employment.
Crocker, J., & Luhtanen, R. (1990).Collective self-esteem and ingroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(1): 60–67.
Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma.Psychological Review, 96 (4), 608–630.
Dew, M. A., Penkower, L., & Bromet, E. J. (1991). Effect of unemployment on mental health in the contemporary family. [Special issue: Environmental risk factors in the development of psychopathology].Behavior Modification, 15 (4), 501–544.
Dion, U. L. (1979). Intergroup conflict and intra-group cohesiveness. In W. G. Austin and S. Worchel (Eds.),The social psychology of intergroup relations, Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Donovan, A., & Oddy, M. (1982). Psychological aspects of unemployment: An investigation into the emotional and social adjustment of school-leavers.Journal of Adolescence, 5, 15–30.
Early, P. D. (1981). Girls need jobs too you know! Unemployment, sex roles and female identity.Australian Journal of Social Issues, 16 (3), 202–215.
Eggleston, J. (1983). Schooling and the experience of work.Education and Society, 1 (1), 23–40.
Endler, N. S., & Parker, J. D. (1990). Multidimensional assessment of coping: A critical evaluation.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 844–854.
Ensminger, M. E., & Celentano, D. D. (1990). Gender differences in the effect of unemployment on psychological distress.Social Science and Medicine, 30 (4), 469–477.
Fagin, L., & Little, M. (1984).The forsaken families. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Feldman, J. M. (1973a). Race, employment and the evaluation of work.Journal of Applied Psychology, 58 (1), 10–15.
Feldman, J. M. (1973b). Race, economic class and perceived outcomes of work and unemployment.Journal of Applied Psychology, 58 (1), 16–22.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes.Human Relations, 7, 117–140.
Fineman, S. (1983a). Counselling the unemployed: Help and helplessness.British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 11 (1), 1–9.
Fineman, S. (1983b).White collar unemployment. London: Wiley.
Fineman, S. (1987). The middle class: Unemployed and under employed. In S. Fineman (Ed.),Unemployment: Personal and social consequences, pp. 74–93. London: Tavistock.
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample.Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 21, 219–239.
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: A study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 150–170.
Fryer, D., & Payne, R. (1986). Being unemployed: A review of the literature on the psychological experience of unemployment. In C. L. Cooper and I. Robertson (Eds.),International review of industrial and organizational psychology, pp. 235–278. London: Wiley.
Fryer, D., & Ullah, P. (1987).Unemployed people: Social and psychological perspectives. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Fryer, D. M. (1988). Agency and poverty: Models of unemployment II.Changes, 6 (2), 57–60.
Furnham, A. (1990).The Protestant work ethic: The Psychology of work-related beliefs and behaviours. London: Routledge.
Furnham, A. F. (1982). The Protestant work ethic and attitudes towards unemployment.Journal of Occupational Psychology, 55, 277–286.
Furnham, A. F. (1983). Attitudes towards the unemployed receiving social security benefits.Human Relations, 36 (2) 135–149.
Furnham, A. F. (1985). The determinants of attitudes towards social security recipients.British Journal of Social Psychology, 24 (1), 19–27.
Gaullier, X. (1982). Economic Crisis and old age: Old age policies in France.Ageing and Society, 2 (2), 165–182.
Gecas, C. V., & Schwalbe, M. L. (1983). Beyond the looking glass self: Social structure and efficacy-based self-esteem.Social Psychology Quarterly, 46, 77–88.
Gergen, K. J, & Gergen, M. M. (1982). Explaining human conduct: form and functions. In P. Secord (Ed.),Explaining human behaviour: Consciousness, human action, and social structure. Beverly Hills: Sage.
Gergen, K. J., & Jones, E. E. (1963). Mental illness, predictability and affective consequences as stimulus factors in person perception.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 95–104.
Gibbs, J. (1982). Coping with joblessness: An inquiry into the psycho-social effects of unemployment among men in their fifties and into their means of alleviating the adverse effects. Undergraduate thesis, Jesus College, Oxford.
Golding, P., & Middleton, S. (1982).Images of welfare. Oxford: Martin Robertson.
Goldsmith, A. H., & Darity, W. (1992). Social psychology, unemployment exposure and equilibrium unemployment.Journal of Economic Psychology, 13, 449–471.
Griffin, C. (1984).Young women and work: The transition from school to the labour market for young working-class women. Birmingham: Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies.
Griffin, C. (1985a).Typical girls? Young women from school to the job market. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Griffin, C. (1985b). Turning the tables: Feminist analyses of youth employment.Policy, 14, 6–11.
Griffin, C. (1986).Broken transitions: From school to scrap heap. Paper presented at the meeting of the British Sociological Association, Loughborough University.
Gurney, R. M. (1980a). The effects of unemployment on the psychological developments of school-leavers.Journal of Occupational Psychology, 53, 205–213.
Gurney, R. M. (1980b). Does unemployment affect the self-esteem of school-leavers?Australian Journal of Psychology, 32 (3), 175–182.
Hall, E. M. (1985). Depression in unemployed Swedish women.Reports from the Department of Stress Research, Karolinska Institute, 181.
Hamilton, S. F. (1985). Arbeit und Erwachsenwerden in den U.S.A. und der B.R.D.Bremer Beitrage zur Psychologie, No.49.
Hamilton, V. L., Hoffman, W. S., Clifford, L. B., & Rauma, D. (1993). Unemployment, distress and coping: A panel of autoworkers.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 234–247.
Harding, S. (1989). Interim report: The changing family. In R. Jowell, S. Witherspoon, & L. Brook,British social attitudes special international report. 6th report. Aldershot: SCPR Gower.
Harris, J. (1972).Unemployment and politics: A study of English social policy, 1886–1914. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hartley, J., & Fryer, D. (1986). The psychology of unemployment: A critical appraisal. In G. Stephenson and J. Davis (Eds.),Progess in Applied Psychology (Vol. 2).
Hartley, J. F. (1980). The impact of unemployment upon the self-esteem of managers.Journal of Occupational Psychology, 53, 147–155.
Hayes, J. & Nutman, P. (1981).Understanding the unemployed: The psychological effects of unemployment. London: Tavistock.
Heider, F. (1958).The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.
Hendry, L. B., & Raymond, M. J. (1986). Psycho-social aspects of youth unemployment: An interpretative theoretical model.Journal of Adolescence, 9 (4), 355–366.
Hendry, L. B., Raymond, M. J., & Stewart, C. (1984). Unemployment, school and leisure: An adolescent study.Leisure Studies, 3, 175–187.
Hill, J. (1978, January). The psychological impact of unemployment.New Society, 19, 118–120.
Hoffman, W. S., Carpentier-Alting, D. J., Hamilton, V. L., & Broman, C. L. (1991, February). Initial impact of plant closings on automobile workers and their families.Families in Society, 103–107.
Hogg, M. A., & Abrams, D. (1988).Social identifications: A social psychology of intergroup relations and group processes. London: Routledge.
Holmes, B. H., & Werbel, J. D. (1992). Finding work following job loss: The role of coping resources.Journal of Employment Counseling, 29 (1), 22–29.
Hornstein, H. A. (1972). Promotive tension: The basis of prosocial behaviour from a Lewinian perspective.Journal of Social Issues, 28, 191–218.
Hutson, S., & Jenkins, R. (1989).Taking the strain: Families, unemployment and the transition to adulthood. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Isralowitz, R. E. (1989). Family unemployment and its impact on adolescent personality development.Adolescence, 24 (93), 47–52.
Iversen, L. (1989). Unemployment and mortality.Stress Medicine, 5 (2), 85–92.
Jackson, P. R., & Walsh, S. (1987). Unemployment and the family. In D. Fryer & P. Ullah (Eds.),Unemployed people: Social and psychological perspectives. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Jahoda, M. (1979). The impact of unemployment in the thirties and the seventies.Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 32, 309–314.
Jahoda, M. (1981). Work, employment and unemployment: Values theories and approaches in social research.American Psychologist, 36, (2): 184–191.
Jahoda, M. (1982).Employment and unemployment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jahoda, M. (1986). In defense of a non-reductionist social psychology.Social Behaviour, 1, 25–29.
Joelson, L., & Wahlquist, L. (1987). The psychological meaning of job insecurity and job loss: Results of a longitudinal study. [Special Issue: Unemployment and health.]Social Science and Medicine, 25 (2), 179–182.
Jones, E. E., Farina, A., Hastorf, A. H., Markus, H., Miller, D. T., & Scott, R. A. (1984).Social stigma: The Psychology of marked relationships. New York: Freeman.
Jones, L. P. (1988). The effect of unemployment on children and adolescents.Children and Youth Services Review, 10 (3), 199–215.
Jones, L. P. (1989). A typology of adaptations to unemployment.Journal of Employment Counseling, 26 (2), 50–59.
Keefe, T. (1984). The stresses of unemployment.Social Work, 29(3), 264–268.
Kelvin, P. (1984). The historical dimension of social psychology: The case of unemployment. In H. Tajfel (Ed.),The social dimension (Vol. 2), 405–422. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kelvin, P., & Jarrett, J. (1985).Unemployment: Its social psychological effects. European Monographs in Social Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kieselbach, T. (1988). Youth unemployment and health effects.International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 34 (2), 83–96.
Kinicki, A. J. (1984). The stresses of unemployment.Social Work, 29 (3), 264–268.
Kinicki, A. J., & Latack, J. C. (1990). Explication of the construct of coping with involuntary job loss.Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 36 (3), 339–360.
Lazarus, R., & Folkman, S. (1984).Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer.
Lazarus, R. S., & DeLongis, A. (1983). Psychological stress and coping in aging.American Psychologist, 38 (3), 245–254.
Leana, C. R., & Feldman, D. C. (1988). Individual responese to job loss: Perceptions, reactions and coping behaviours.Journal of Management, 14 (3), 375–389.
Leana, C. R., & Feldman, D. C. (1990). Individual responses to job loss: Empirical findings from two field studies.Human Relations, 43 (11), 1155–1181.
Lobel, A. S. (1991). Allocation of investment in work and family roles: Alternative theories and implications for research.Academy of Management Review, 16 (3), 507–521.
Lott, A. J., & Lott, B. E. (1965). Group cohesiveness, communication level and conformity.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 408–412.
Loewenberg, F. M. (1981). The destigmatization of public dependency.Social Service Review, 55 (3), 434–452.
Mack, J., & Lansley, L. (1985).Poor Britain. London: Allen & Unwin.
Madonia, J. F. (1983). The trauma of unemployment and its consequences.Social Casework, 64 (8), 482–488.
Mallinckrodt, B., & Fretz, B. R. (1988). Social support and the impact of job loss on older professionals.Journal of Counselling Psychology, 35 (3), 281–286.
McFadyen, R. G. (1992).Conflicts and consistencies in stereotypes and identities of unemployed people. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cambridge University.
McFadyen, R. G., & Gray, C. (1995). Manners of expressing negative and sympathetic attitudes towards the unemployed.British Journal of Social Psychology, 34 (3), 303–324.
McGhee, J., & Fryer, D. (1989). Unemployment, income and the family: An action research approach [Special issue: Perspectives on male role demands].Social Behaviour, 4 (4), 237–252.
McRae, S. (1987).Young and jobless. London: Policy Studies Institute.
Muller, J., Hicks, R., & Winocur, S. (1993). The effects of employment and unemployment on psychological well-being in Australian clerical workers: Gender differences.Australian Journal of Psychology, 45, 103–108.
Murray, C. (1989, November 26). Underclass: The alienated poor are devastating America’s cities. Is the same happening here?Sunday Times Magazine, pp. 26–46.
Olaffsen, O., & Svenssen, P. G. (1986). Unemployment related lifestyle changes and health disturbances in adolescents and children in the Western countries.Social Science and Medicine, 22 (11), 1105–1113.
Ostell, A., & Divers, P. (1987). Attributional style, unemployment and mental health.Journal of Occupational Psychology, 60 (4), 333–337.
Ostrihanska, Z., & Rzeplinska, I. (1989). So-called parasitism: A social problem and its legal regulation.International Journal of the Sociology of Law, 17 (4): 429–444.
Page, C. H. (1976).Class and American sociology. New York: Schoeken Books.
Pahl, R. E. (1982). Family, community and unemployment.New Society, 59 (1001), 91–93.
Passmore, E. (1989). Handling unemployment groups: A group support model for coping with job loss.Canadian Journal of Counselling, 23 (3), 296–302.
Payne, R., & Hartley, J. (1987, March). A test model for explaining the affective experience of unemployed men.Journal of Occupational Psychology, 60 (1), 31–47.
Pearlin, L. I., Menaghan, E. G., Lieberman, M. A., & Mullan, J. T. (1981). The stress process.Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 22 (4), 337–356.
Roberts, K., Duggan, J., & Noble, M. (1982). Out-of-school youth in high unemployment areas: An empirical investigation.British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 10, 1–11.
Rosenberg, M. (1979).Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books.
Shamir, B. (1985). Unemployment and ‘Free Time’: The role of Protestant work ethic and work involvement.Leisure Studies, 4 (3), 333–345.
Shamir, B. (1986). Self-esteem and the psychological impact of unemployment.Social Psychology Quarterly, 49, 61–72.
Sole, N., Marton, J., & Hornstein, H. A. (1975). Opinion similarity and helping: Three field experiments investigating the bases of promotive tension.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 1–13.
Strehmel, P., & Ulich, D. (1991). Stressful life changes and development: A follow-up study relating to the consequences of unemployment.Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Psychologie 50 (1), 64–76.
Starrin, B., & Larsson, G. (1987). Coping with unemployment: A contribution to the understanding of women’s unemployment. [Special issue: Unemployment and health].Social Science and Medicine, 25 (2), 163–171.
Tajfel, H. (1978a).Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. London: Academic Press.
Tajfel, H. (1978b).The social psychology of minorities. London: Minority Rights Group.
Tajfel, H. (1981). Social stereotypes and social groups. In J. C. Turner and H. Giles (Eds.),Intergroup behaviour. Oxford: Blackwell.
Tajfel, H. (Ed.). (1982).Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tajfel, H., Flament, C., Billig, M., & Bundy, R. P. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behaviour.European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 149–178.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.),The social psychology of intergroup relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In W. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.),The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Taylor, D. M., & Moghaddam, I. (1987).Theories of intergroup relations. New York: Praeger.
Taylor, R. L. (1987). Black youth in crisis. [Special issue: Black America in the 1980s].Humboldt Journal of Social Relations, 14 (1–2), 106–133.
Taylor-Goodby, P. (1985). Attitudes to welfare.Journal of Social Policy, 14, 73–81.
Testa, M., Crocker, I., & Major, B. M. (1988). The self-protective function of prejudice: Effects of negative feedback and evaluator prejudice on mood and self-esteem. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago.
Tetlock, P. E., & Manstead, A. S. R. (1985). Impression-management versus intrapsychic explanations in social psychology: A useful dichotomy?Psychological Review, 92, 59–77.
Thomsen, K. (1988). Courses for unemployed individuals that are difficult to place: Problem courses for the problem unemployed?Gruppendynamik, 19, (3), 285–309.
Tiggemann, M., & Winefield, A. H. (1984). The effects of unemployment on mood, self-esteem, locus of control, and depressive affect of school-leavers.Journal of Occupational Psychology, 57, 33–42.
Trew, K., & Kilpatrick, R. (1984). The daily life of the unemployed: Social and psychological dimensions. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, Queens’s University of Belfast.
Turner, J. C. (1981). The experimental social psychology of intergroup behaviour. In J. C. Turner and H. Giles, (Eds.),Intergroup behaviour. Oxford: Blackwell.
Turner, J. C. (1982a). Social identity and intergroup relations. In H. Tajfel (Ed.),European studies of social psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Turner, J. C. (1982b). Towards a cognitive redefinition of the social group. In H. Tajfel, (Ed.),Social identity and intergroup relations (pp. 15–40). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme.
Turner, J. C. (1985). Social categorization and the self-concept: A social cognitive theory of group behaviour. In E. J. Lawler (Ed.),Advance in Group Processes (Vol. 2, pp. 77–122). Greenwich, CT: J.A.I. Press.
Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. O., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987).Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford: Blackwell.
Turner, J. B., Kessler, R. C., & House, J. S. (1991). Factors facilitating adjustment to unemployment: Implications for intervention.American Journal of Community Psychology, 19 (4), 521–542.
Ullah, P. (1985). Disaffected black and white youth: The role of unemployment duration and perceived job discrimination.Ethnic and Racial Studies, 8, 181–193.
Ullah, P. (1987). Unemployed black youths in a northern city. In D. Fryer and P. Ullah,Unemployed people: Social and psychological perspectives. Miton Keynes: Open University Press.
Ullah, P. (1990). The association between income, financial strain and psychological well-being among unemployed youths.Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63 (4), 317–330.
Urry, J. (1981, December). Localities, regions and social class.International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 5 (4), 455–474.
Vann, D. H. (1976). Personal responsibility, authoritarianism and treatment of the obese. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University.
Van Velsor, E. & Beeghley, L. (1979). The process of class identification among employed married women: A replication and reanalysis.Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41 (4), 771–778.
Vinokur, A., Caplan, R. D., & Williams, C. C. (1987). Effects of recent and past stress on mental health: Coping with unemployment among Vietnam veterans and nonveterans.Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 708–728.
Waldron, I., & Herold, J. (1986). Employment, attitudes towards employment and women’s health.Women and Health, 11 (1) 79–98.
Walker, I., & Mann, L. (1987). Unemployment, relative deprivation, and social protest.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13 (2), 275–283.
Wallace, C. (1986). From girls to boys to women and men: The social reproduction of gender roles in transition from school to (un) employment. In S. Walker and L. Barton (Eds.),Youth unemployment and schooling. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Warr, P., Jackson, P., & Banks, M. H. (1988). Unemployment and mental health: Some British studies.Journal of Social Issues, 44 (4), 47–68.
Warr, P., & Payne, R. (1983). Social class and reported changes in behaviour after job loss.Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 13 (3), 202–222.
Warr, P. B. (1987).Work, unemployment and mental health. Oxford: Oxford Science Publications.
Warr, P. B. & Parry, G. (1982). Paid employment and women’s psychological well-being.Psychological Bulletin, 9, 498–516.
Warren, A. (1986).Living with the unemployed. Hodder & Stoughton.
Winefeld A. H. & Tiggemann, M. (1985). Job loss versus failure to find work as psychological stressors in the young unemployed.Journal of Occupational Psychology, 62 (1), 79–85.
Winefield, A. H., & Tiggemann, M. (1990). Employment status and psychological well-being: A longitudinal study.Journal of Applied Psychology, 75 (4), 455–459.
Winefield, A. H., Tiggemann, M., & Winefield, H. R. (1991). The psychological impact of unemployment and unsatisfactory employment in young men and women: Longitudinal and cross-sectional data.British Journal of Social Psychology, 82 (4), 473–486.
White, M. (1991).Against unemployment. London: Policy Studies Institute.
Zawadski, B., & Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1935). The psychological consequences of unemployment.Journal of Social Psychology, 6, 224–251.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mcfadyen, R.G. Coping with threatened identities: Unemployed people’s self-categorizations. Current Psychology 14, 233–256 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686910
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686910